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Stretching and Flexibility 

Everything you never wanted to know 



by Brad Appleton 



Version: 1.42, Last Modified 98/06/10 





Copyright © 1993-1998 by Bradford D. Appleton 



Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this document at no charge 
or at a charge that covers reproducing the cost of the copies, provided that the copyright 
notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. 



This document is available in plain text, PDF, postscript, and html formats via the World 
Wide Web from the following URLs: ‘http : //www . enteract . com/~bradapp/docs/rec/stretching/ ! 

‘ftp : //ftp . enteract . com/users/bradapp/rec/stretching/ ! 

(the file suffix indicates the file format) 



The techniques, ideas, and suggestions in this document are not intended as a substitute for 
proper medical advice! Consult your physician or health care professional before performing 
any new exercise or exercise technique, particularly if you are pregnant or nursing, or if you 
are elderly, or if you have any chronic or recurring conditions. Any application of the 
techniques, ideas, and suggestions in this document is at the reader’s sole discretion and 
risk. 

The author and publisher of this document and their employers make no warranty of any 
kind in regard to the content of this document, including, but not limited to, any implied 
warranties of merchantability, or fitness for any particular purpose. The author and pub- 
lisher of this document and their employers are not liable or responsible to any person or 
entity for any errors contained in this document, or for any special, incidental, or conse- 
quential damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the information 
contained in this document. 




Introduction 



1 



Introduction 



This document is a modest attempt to compile a wealth of information in order to 
answer some frequently asked questions about stretching and flexibility. It is organized into 
chapters covering the following topics: 

1. Physiology of Stretching 

2. Flexibility 

3. Types of Stretching 

4. How to Stretch 

Although each chapter may refer to sections in other chapters, it is not required that 
you read every chapter in the order presented. It is important, however, that you read the 
disclaimer before reading any other sections of this document. See [Disclaimer], page 1. If 
you wish to skip around, numerous cross references are supplied in each section to help you 
find the concepts you may have missed. There is also an index at the end of this document. 



Disclaimer 

I (Brad Appleton - the author of this document) do not claim to be any kind of expert 
on stretching, anatomy, physiology, or any other biological science. I am merely attempting 
to compile information that I have read in books or that has been presented to me by 
knowledgeable sources. 

The techniques, ideas, and suggestions in this document are not intended as a substitute 
for proper medical advice! Consult your physician or health care professional before per- 
forming any new exercise or exercise technique, particularly if you are pregnant or nursing, 
or if you are elderly, or if you have any chronic or recurring conditions. Any application 
of the techniques, ideas, and suggestions in this document is at the reader's sole discretion 
and risk. 

The author and publisher of this document and their employers make no warranty of 
any kind in regard to the content of this document, including, but not limited to, any 
implied warranties of merchantability, or fitness for any particular purpose. The author 
and publisher of this document and their employers are not liable or responsible to any 
person or entity for any errors contained in this document, or for any special, incidental, or 
consequential damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the information 
contained in this document. 

In other words: "I’m not a doctor, nor do I play one on TV!" I can not be held liable 
for any damages or injuries that you might suffer from somehow relying upon information 
in this document, no matter how awful. Not even if the information in question is incorrect 
or inaccurate. If you have any doubt (and even if you don’t) you should always check with 
your doctor before trying any new exercise or exercise technique. 




Introduction 



2 



Acknowledgements 

Thanks to all the readers of the ‘rec .martial-arts’, ‘rec . arts . dance’ and ‘misc .fitness’ 
newsgroups on Usenet who responded to my request for questions (and answers) on stretch- 
ing. Many parts of this document come directly from these respondents. Thanks in 
particular to Shawne Neeper for sharing her formidable knowledge of muscle anatomy and 
physiology. 

Other portions of this document rely heavily upon the information in the following books: 



Sport Stretch, by Michael .J. Alter 

(referred to as M. Alter in the rest of this document) 

Stretching Scientifically, by Tom Kurz 

(referred to as Kurz in the rest of this document) 

SynerStretch For Total Body Flexibility, from Health For Life 
(referred to as SynerStretch in the rest of this document) 

The Health For Life Training Advisor, also from Health For Life 
(referred to as HFLTA in the rest of this document) 

Mobility Training for the Martial Arts, by Tony Gummerson 
(referred to as Gummerson in the rest of this document) 



Further information on these books and others, is available near the end of this document. 
See Appendix A [References on Stretching], page 41. 



About the Author 

I am not any kind of medical or fitness professional! I do have over 6 years of martial arts 
training, and over 20 years of dance training in classical ballet, modern, and jazz. However, 
my primary "qualifications" to write this document are that I took considerable time and 
effort to read several books on the topic, and to combine the information that I read with 
the information supplied to me from many knowledgeable readers of Usenet news. I have 
tried to write this document for all audiences and not make it specific to any particular 
sport or art (such as dancing or martial arts). I have also tried to leave out any of my own 
personal opinions or feelings and just state the facts as related to me by the real experts. 

If you have specific questions or comments about the specific content of one or more parts 
of the stretching FAQ, please email them to me at <‘mailto:bradapp@enteract.com’>. 
However, Please do not email me asking for any stretching advice! I am a professional 
software developer of programming tools and environments. I simply am not qualified to 
dispense medical or fitness advice. You need to seek out a licensed/certified medical or 
fitness professional for that sort of thing. The information I have compiled here comes from 
various expert sources, and I certainly learned a lot when I researched the subject, but Im 
not an expert myself. 




Chapter 1: Physiology of Stretching 



3 



1 Physiology of Stretching 

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to some of the basic physiological concepts 
that come into play when a muscle is stretched. Concepts will be introduced initially with 
a general overview and then (for those who want to know the gory details) will be discussed 
in further detail. If you aren’t all that interested in this aspect of stretching, you can skip 
this chapter. Other sections will refer to important concepts from this chapter and you can 
easily look them up on a "need to know" basis. 



1.1 The Musculoskeletal System 

Together, muscles and bones comprise what is called the musculoskeletal system of the 
body. The bones provide posture and structural support for the body and the muscles 
provide the body with the ability to move (by contracting, and thus generating tension). 
The musculoskeletal system also provides protection for the body’s internal organs. In order 
to serve their function, bones must be joined together by something. The point where bones 
connect to one another is called a joint , and this connection is made mostly by ligaments 
(along with the help of muscles). Muscles are attached to the bone by tendons. Bones, 
tendons, and ligaments do not possess the ability (as muscles do) to make your body move. 
Muscles are very unique in this respect. 



1.2 Muscle Composition 

Muscles vary in shape and in size, and serve many different purposes. Most large muscles, 
like the hamstrings and quadriceps, control motion. Other muscles, like the heart, and the 
muscles of the inner ear, perform other functions. At the microscopic level however, all 
muscles share the same basic structure. 

At the highest level, the (whole) muscle is composed of many strands of tissue called 
fascicles. These are the strands of muscle that we see when we cut red meat or poultry. 
Each fascicle is composed of fasciculi which are bundles of muscle fibers. The muscle fibers 
are in turn composed of tens of thousands of thread-like myofybrils, which can contract, 
relax, and elongate (lengthen). The myofybrils are (in turn) composed of up to millions 
of bands laid end-to-end called sarcomeres. Each sarcomere is made of overlapping thick 
and thin filaments called myofilaments. The thick and thin myofilaments are made up of 
contractile proteins, primarily actin and myosin. 

1.2.1 How Muscles Contract 

The way in which all these various levels of the muscle operate is as follows: Nerves 
connect the spinal column to the muscle. The place where the nerve and muscle meet is 
called the neuromuscular junction. When an electrical signal crosses the neuromuscular 
junction, it is transmitted deep inside the muscle fibers. Inside the muscle fibers, the signal 
stimulates the flow of calcium which causes the thick and thin myofilaments to slide across 
one another. When this occurs, it causes the sarcomere to shorten, which generates force. 




Chapter 1: Physiology of Stretching 



4 



When billions of sarcomeres in the muscle shorten all at once it results in a contraction of 
the entire muscle fiber. 

When a muscle fiber contracts, it contracts completely. There is no such thing as a 
partially contracted muscle fiber. Muscle fibers are unable to vary the intensity of their 
contraction relative to the load against which they are acting. If this is so, then how does 
the force of a muscle contraction vary in strength from strong to weak? What happens is 
that more muscle fibers are recruited, as they are needed, to perform the job at hand. The 
more muscle fibers that are recruited by the central nervous system, the stronger the force 
generated by the muscular contraction. 



1.2.2 Fast and Slow Muscle Fibers 

The energy which produces the calcium flow in the muscle fibers comes from mitochon- 
dria, the part of the muscle cell that converts glucose (blood sugar) into energy. Different 
types of muscle fibers have different amounts of mitochondria. The more mitochondria in a 
muscle fiber, the more energy it is able to produce. Muscle fibers are categorized into slow- 
twitch fibers and fast-twitch fibers. Slow-twitch fibers (also called Type 1 muscle fibers ) 
are slow to contract, but they are also very slow to fatigue. Fast-twitch fibers are very 
quick to contract and come in two varieties: Type 2A muscle fibers which fatigue at an 
intermediate rate, and Type 2B muscle fibers which fatigue very quickly. The main rea- 
son the slow-twitch fibers are slow to fatigue is that they contain more mitochondria than 
fast-twitch fibers and hence are able to produce more energy. Slow-twitch fibers are also 
smaller in diameter than fast-twitch fibers and have increased capillary blood flow around 
them. Because they have a smaller diameter and an increased blood flow, the slow-twitch 
fibers are able to deliver more oxygen and remove more waste products from the muscle 
fibers (which decreases their "fatigability"). 

These three muscle fiber types (Types 1, 2A, and 2B) are contained in all muscles in 
varying amounts. Muscles that need to be contracted much of the time (like the heart) 
have a greater number of Type 1 (slow) fibers. When a muscle first starts to contract, it is 
primarily Type 1 fibers that are initially activated, then Type 2A and Type 2B fibers are 
activated (if needed) in that order. The fact that muscle fibers are recruited in this sequence 
is what provides the ability to execute brain commands with such fine-tuned tuned muscle 
responses. It also makes the Type 2B fibers difficult to train because they are not activated 
until most of the Type 1 and Type 2A fibers have been recruited. 

HFLTA states that the the best way to remember the difference between muscles with 
predominantly slow-twitch fibers and muscles with predominantly fast-twitch fibers is to 
think of "white meat" and "dark meat". Dark meat is dark because it has a greater 
number of slow-twitch muscle fibers and hence a greater number of mitochondria, which 
are dark. White meat consists mostly of muscle fibers which are at rest much of the time 
but are frequently called on to engage in brief bouts of intense activity. This muscle tissue 
can contract quickly but is fast to fatigue and slow to recover. White meat is lighter in 
color than dark meat because it contains fewer mitochondria. 




Chapter 1: Physiology of Stretching 



5 



1.3 Connective Tissue 

Located all around the muscle and its fibers are connective tissues. Connective tissue 
is composed of a base substance and two kinds of protein based fiber. The two types of 
fiber are collagenous connective tissue and elastic connective tissue. Collagenous connective 
tissue consists mostly of collagen (hence its name) and provides tensile strength. Elastic 
connective tissue consists mostly of elastin and (as you might guess from its name) provides 
elasticity. The base substance is called mucopolysaccharide and acts as both a lubricant 
(allowing the fibers to easily slide over one another), and as a glue (holding the fibers of the 
tissue together into bundles). The more elastic connective tissue there is around a joint, 
the greater the range of motion in that joint. Connective tissues are made up of tendons, 
ligaments, and the fascial sheaths that envelop, or bind down, muscles into separate groups. 
These fascial sheaths, or fascia, are named according to where they are located in the 
muscles: 

endomysium 

The innermost fascial sheath that envelops individual muscle fibers. 

perimysium 

The fascial sheath that binds groups of muscle fibers into individual fasciculi 
(see Section 1.2 [Muscle Composition], page 3). 

epimysium 

The outermost fascial sheath that binds entire fascicles (see Section 1.2 [Muscle 
Composition], page 3). 

These connective tissues help provide suppleness and tone to the muscles. 

1.4 Cooperating Muscle Groups 

When muscles cause a limb to move through the joint’s range of motion, they usually 
act in the following cooperating groups: 

agonists These muscles cause the movement to occur. They create the normal range 
of movement in a joint by contracting. Agonists are also referred to as prime 
movers since they are the muscles that are primarily responsible for generating 
the movement. 

antagonists 

These muscles act in opposition to the movement generated by the agonists and 
are responsible for returning a limb to its initial position. 

synergists These muscles perform, or assist in performing, the same set of joint motion as 
the agonists. Synergists are sometimes referred to as neutralizers because they 
help cancel out, or neutralize, extra motion from the agonists to make sure that 
the force generated works within the desired plane of motion. 

fixators These muscles provide the necessary support to assist in holding the rest of the 
body in place while the movement occurs. Fixators are also sometimes called 
stabilizers. 




Chapter 1: Physiology of Stretching 



6 



As an example, when you flex your knee, your hamstring contracts, and, to some extent, 
so does your gastrocnemius (calf) and lower buttocks. Meanwhile, your quadriceps are 
inhibited (relaxed and lengthened somewhat) so as not to resist the flexion (see Section 1.6.4 
[Reciprocal Inhibition], page 9). In this example, the hamstring serves as the agonist, or 
prime mover; the quadricep serves as the antagonist; and the calf and lower buttocks serve as 
the synergists. Agonists and antagonists are usually located on opposite sides of the affected 
joint (like your hamstrings and quadriceps, or your triceps and biceps), while synergists are 
usually located on the same side of the joint near the agonists. Larger muscles often call 
upon their smaller neighbors to function as synergists. 

The following is a list of commonly used agonist/antagonist muscle pairs: 

• pectorals/latissimus dorsi (pecs and lats) 

• anterior deltoids/posterior deltoids (front and back shoulder) 

• trapezius/deltoids (traps and delts) 

• abdominals/spinal erectors (abs and lower-back) 

• left and right external obliques (sides) 

• quadriceps/hamstrings (quads and hams) 

• shins / calves 

• biceps/triceps 

• forearm flexors/extensors 



1.5 Types of Muscle Contractions 

The contraction of a muscle does not necessarily imply that the muscle shortens; it only 
means that tension has been generated. Muscles can contract in the following ways: 

isometric contraction 

This is a contraction in which no movement takes place, because the load on the 
muscle exceeds the tension generated by the contracting muscle. This occurs 
when a muscle attempts to push or pull an immovable object. 

isotonic contraction 

This is a contraction in which movement does take place, because the tension 
generated by the contracting muscle exceeds the load on the muscle. This occurs 
when you use your muscles to successfully push or pull an object. 

Isotonic contractions are further divided into two types: 
concentric contraction 

This is a contraction in which the muscle decreases in length (short- 
ens) against an opposing load, such as lifting a weight up. 

eccentric contraction 

This is a contraction in which the muscle increases in length (length- 
ens) as it resists a load, such as pushing something down. 

During a concentric contraction, the muscles that are shortening serve as the 
agonists and hence do all of the work. During an eccentric contraction the 




Chapter 1: Physiology of Stretching 



7 



muscles that are lengthening serve as the agonists (and do all of the work). See 
Section 1.4 [Cooperating Muscle Groups], page 5. 



1.6 What Happens When You Stretch 

The stretching of a muscle fiber begins with the sarcomere (see Section 1.2 [Muscle 
Composition], page 3), the basic unit of contraction in the muscle fiber. As the sarcom- 
ere contracts, the area of overlap between the thick and thin myofilaments increases. As 
it stretches, this area of overlap decreases, allowing the muscle fiber to elongate. Once 
the muscle fiber is at its maximum resting length (all the sarcomeres are fully stretched), 
additional stretching places force on the surrounding connective tissue (see Section 1.3 [Con- 
nective Tissue], page 5). As the tension increases, the collagen fibers in the connective tissue 
align themselves along the same line of force as the tension. Hence when you stretch, the 
muscle fiber is pulled out to its full length sarcomere by sarcomere, and then the connective 
tissue takes up the remaining slack. When this occurs, it helps to realign any disorganized 
fibers in the direction of the tension. This realignment is what helps to rehabilitate scarred 
tissue back to health. 

When a muscle is stretched, some of its fibers lengthen, but other fibers may remain at 
rest. The current length of the entire muscle depends upon the number of stretched fibers 
(similar to the way that the total strength of a contracting muscle depends on the number of 
recruited fibers contracting). According to SynerStretch you should think of "little pockets 
of fibers distributed throughout the muscle body stretching, and other fibers simply going 
along for the ride". The more fibers that are stretched, the greater the length developed by 
the stretched muscle. 

1.6.1 Proprioceptors 

The nerve endings that relay all the information about the musculoskeletal system to the 
central nervous system are called proprioceptors. Proprioceptors (also called mechanore- 
ceptors ) are the source of all proprioception : the perception of one’s own body position and 
movement. The proprioceptors detect any changes in physical displacement (movement or 
position) and any changes in tension, or force, within the body. They are found in all nerve 
endings of the joints, muscles, and tendons. The proprioceptors related to stretching are 
located in the tendons and in the muscle fibers. 

There are two kinds of muscle fibers: intrafusal muscle fibers and extrafusal muscle fibers. 
Extrafusil fibers are the ones that contain myofibrils (see Section 1.2 [Muscle Composition], 
page 3) and are what is usually meant when we talk about muscle fibers. Intrafusal fibers 
are also called muscle spindles and lie parallel to the extrafusal fibers. Muscle spindles, 
or stretch receptors, are the primary proprioceptors in the muscle. Another proprioceptor 
that comes into play during stretching is located in the tendon near the end of the muscle 
fiber and is called the golgi tendon organ. A third type of proprioceptor, called a pacinian 
corpuscle, is located close to the golgi tendon organ and is responsible for detecting changes 
in movement and pressure within the body. 




Chapter 1: Physiology of Stretching 



8 



When the extrafusal fibers of a muscle lengthen, so do the intrafusal fibers (muscle 
spindles). The muscle spindle contains two different types of fibers (or stretch receptors) 
which are sensitive to the change in muscle length and the rate of change in muscle length. 
When muscles contract it places tension on the tendons where the golgi tendon organ is 
located. The golgi tendon organ is sensitive to the change in tension and the rate of change 
of the tension. 

1.6.2 The Stretch Reflex 

When the muscle is stretched, so is the muscle spindle (see Section 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors], 
page 7). The muscle spindle records the change in length (and how fast) and sends signals 
to the spine which convey this information. This triggers the stretch reflex (also called 
the myotatic reflex) which attempts to resist the change in muscle length by causing the 
stretched muscle to contract. The more sudden the change in muscle length, the stronger 
the muscle contractions will be (plyometric, or "jump", training is based on this fact). This 
basic function of the muscle spindle helps to maintain muscle tone and to protect the body 
from injury. 

One of the reasons for holding a stretch for a prolonged period of time is that as you hold 
the muscle in a stretched position, the muscle spindle habituates (becomes accustomed to 
the new length) and reduces its signaling. Gradually, you can train your stretch receptors 
to allow greater lengthening of the muscles. 

Some sources suggest that with extensive training, the stretch reflex of certain muscles 
can be controlled so that there is little or no reflex contraction in response to a sudden 
stretch. While this type of control provides the opportunity for the greatest gains in flex- 
ibility, it also provides the greatest risk of injury if used improperly. Only consummate 
professional athletes and dancers at the top of their sport (or art) are believed to actually 
possess this level of muscular control. 

1.6. 2.1 Components of the Stretch Reflex 

The stretch reflex has both a dynamic component and a static component. The static 
component of the stretch reflex persists as long as the muscle is being stretched. The 
dynamic component of the stretch reflex (which can be very powerful) lasts for only a 
moment and is in response to the initial sudden increase in muscle length. The reason that 
the stretch reflex has two components is because there are actually two kinds of intrafusal 
muscle fibers: nuclear chain fibers, which are responsible for the static component; and 
nuclear bag fibers, which are responsible for the dynamic component. 

Nuclear chain fibers are long and thin, and lengthen steadily when stretched. When 
these fibers are stretched, the stretch reflex nerves increase their firing rates (signaling) as 
their length steadily increases. This is the static component of the stretch reflex. 

Nuclear bag fibers bulge out at the middle, where they are the most elastic. The stretch- 
sensing nerve ending for these fibers is wrapped around this middle area, which lengthens 
rapidly when the fiber is stretched. The outer-middle areas, in contrast, act like they are 
filled with viscous fluid; they resist fast stretching, then gradually extend under prolonged 




Chapter 1: Physiology of Stretching 



9 



tension. So, when a fast stretch is demanded of these fibers, the middle takes most of the 
stretch at first; then, as the outer-middle parts extend, the middle can shorten somewhat. 
So the nerve that senses stretching in these fibers fires rapidly with the onset of a fast 
stretch, then slows as the middle section of the fiber is allowed to shorten again. This is 
the dynamic component of the stretch reflex: a strong signal to contract at the onset of a 
rapid increase in muscle length, followed by slightly "higher than normal" signaling which 
gradually decreases as the rate of change of the muscle length decreases. 

1.6.3 The Lengthening Reaction 

When muscles contract (possibly due to the stretch reflex), they produce tension at the 
point where the muscle is connected to the tendon, where the golgi tendon organ is located. 
The golgi tendon organ records the change in tension, and the rate of change of the tension, 
and sends signals to the spine to convey this information (see Section 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors], 
page 7). When this tension exceeds a certain threshold, it triggers the lengthening reaction 
which inhibits the muscles from contracting and causes them to relax. Other names for 
this reflex are the inverse myotatic reflex , autogenic inhibition , and the clasped-knife reflex. 
This basic function of the golgi tendon organ helps to protect the muscles, tendons, and 
ligaments from injury. The lengthening reaction is possible only because the signaling of 
golgi tendon organ to the spinal cord is powerful enough to overcome the signaling of the 
muscle spindles telling the muscle to contract. 

Another reason for holding a stretch for a prolonged period of time is to allow this 
lengthening reaction to occur, thus helping the stretched muscles to relax. It is easier to 
stretch, or lengthen, a muscle when it is not trying to contract. 



1.6.4 Reciprocal Inhibition 

When an agonist contracts, in order to cause the desired motion, it usually forces the an- 
tagonists to relax (see Section 1.4 [Cooperating Muscle Groups], page 5). This phenomenon 
is called reciprocal inhibition because the antagonists are inhibited from contracting. This 
is sometimes called reciprocal innervation but that term is really a misnomer since it is the 
agonists which inhibit (relax) the antagonists. The antagonists do not actually innervate 
(cause the contraction of) the agonists. 

Such inhibition of the antagonistic muscles is not necessarily required. In fact, co- 
contraction can occur. When you perform a sit-up, one would normally assume that the 
stomach muscles inhibit the contraction of the muscles in the lumbar, or lower, region of the 
back. In this particular instance however, the back muscles (spinal erectors) also contract. 
This is one reason why sit-ups are good for strengthening the back as well as the stomach. 

When stretching, it is easier to stretch a muscle that is relaxed than to stretch a muscle 
that is contracting. By taking advantage of the situations when reciprocal inhibition does 
occur, you can get a more effective stretch by inducing the antagonists to relax during the 
stretch due to the contraction of the agonists. You also want to relax any muscles used as 
synergists by the muscle you are trying to stretch. For example, when you stretch your calf, 
you want to contract the shin muscles (the antagonists of the calf) by flexing your foot. 




Chapter 1: Physiology of Stretching 



10 



However, the hamstrings use the calf as a synergist so you want to also relax the hamstrings 
by contracting the quadricep (i.e., keeping your leg straight). 




Chapter 2: Flexibility 



11 



2 Flexibility 



Flexibility is defined by Gummerson as "the absolute range of movement in a joint or 
series of joints that is attainable in a momentary effort with the help of a partner or a 
piece of equipment." This definition tells us that flexibility is not something general but is 
specific to a particular joint or set of joints. In other words, it is a myth that some people 
are innately flexible throughout their entire body. Being flexible in one particular area or 
joint does not necessarily imply being flexible in another. Being "loose" in the upper body 
does not mean you will have a "loose" lower body. Furthermore, according to SynerStretch , 
flexibility in a joint is also "specific to the action performed at the joint (the ability to do 
front splits doesn’t imply the ability to do side splits even though both actions occur at the 
hip)." 



2.1 Types of Flexibility 

Many people are unaware of the fact that there are different types of flexibility. These 
different types of flexibility are grouped according to the various types of activities involved 
in athletic training. The ones which involve motion are called dynamic and the ones which 
do not are called static. The different types of flexibility (according to Kurz) are: 

dynamic flexibility 

Dynamic flexibility (also called kinetic flexibility ) is the ability to perform dy- 
namic (or kinetic) movements of the muscles to bring a limb through its full 
range of motion in the joints. 

static-active flexibility 

Static-active flexibility (also called active flexibility ) is the ability to assume 
and maintain extended positions using only the tension of the agonists and 
synergists while the antagonists are being stretched (see Section 1.4 [Cooperat- 
ing Muscle Groups], page 5). For example, lifting the leg and keeping it high 
without any external support (other than from your own leg muscles). 

static-passive flexibility 

Static-passive flexibility (also called passive flexibility) is the ability to assume 
extended positions and then maintain them using only your weight, the support 
of your limbs, or some other apparatus (such as a chair or a barre). Note that 
the ability to maintain the position does not come solely from your muscles, 
as it does with static-active flexibility. Being able to perform the splits is an 
example of static-passive flexibility. 

Research has shown that active flexibility is more closely related to the level of sports 
achievement than is passive flexibility. Active flexibility is harder to develop than passive 
flexibility (which is what most people think of as "flexibility" ) ; not only does active flexibility 
require passive flexibility in order to assume an initial extended position, it also requires 
muscle strength to be able to hold and maintain that position. 




Chapter 2: Flexibility 



12 



2.2 Factors Limiting Flexibility 

According to Gummerson , flexibility (he uses the term mobility) is affected by the fol- 
lowing factors: 

• Internal influences 

— the type of joint (some joints simply aren’t meant to be flexible) 

— the internal resistance within a joint 

— bony structures which limit movement 

— the elasticity of muscle tissue (muscle tissue that is scarred due to a previous injury 
is not very elastic) 

— the elasticity of tendons and ligaments (ligaments do not stretch much and tendons 
should not stretch at all) 

— the elasticity of skin (skin actually has some degree of elasticity, but not much) 

— the ability of a muscle to relax and contract to achieve the greatest range of 
movement 

— the temperature of the joint and associated tissues (joints and muscles offer better 
flexibility at body temperatures that are 1 to 2 degrees higher than normal) 

• External influences 

— the temperature of the place where one is training (a warmer temperature is more 
conducive to increased flexibility) 

— the time of day (most people are more flexible in the afternoon than in the morning, 
peaking from about 2:30pm-4pm) 

— the stage in the recovery process of a joint (or muscle) after injury (injured joints 
and muscles will usually offer a lesser degree of flexibility than healthy ones) 

— age (pre-adolescents are generally more flexible than adults) 

— gender (females are generally more flexible than males) 

— one’s ability to perform a particular exercise (practice makes perfect) 

— one’s commitment to achieving flexibility 

— the restrictions of any clothing or equipment 

Some sources also the suggest that water is an important dietary element with regard 
to flexibility. Increased water intake is believed to contribute to increased mobility, as well 
as increased total body relaxation. 

Rather than discuss each of these factors in significant detail as Gummerson does, I 
will attempt to focus on some of the more common factors which limit one’s flexibility. 
According to SynerStretch , the most common factors are: bone structure, muscle mass, 
excess fatty tissue, and connective tissue (and, of course, physical injury or disability). 

Depending on the type of joint involved and its present condition (is it healthy?), the 
bone structure of a particular joint places very noticeable limits on flexibility. This is a 
common way in which age can be a factor limiting flexibility since older joints tend not to 
be as healthy as younger ones. 




Chapter 2: Flexibility 



13 



Muscle mass can be a factor when the muscle is so heavily developed that it interferes 
with the ability to take the adjacent joints through their complete range of motion (for 
example, large hamstrings limit the ability to fully bend the knees). Excess fatty tissue 
imposes a similar restriction. 

The majority of "flexibility" work should involve performing exercises designed to reduce 
the internal resistance offered by soft connective tissues (see Section 1.3 [Connective Tissue], 
page 5). Most stretching exercises attempt to accomplish this goal and can be performed 
by almost anyone, regardless of age or gender. 

2.2.1 How Connective Tissue Affects Flexibility 

The resistance to lengthening that is offered by a muscle is dependent upon its connective 
tissues: When the muscle elongates, the surrounding connective tissues become more taut 
(see Section 1.3 [Connective Tissue], page 5). Also, inactivity of certain muscles or joints can 
cause chemical changes in connective tissue which restrict flexibility. According to M. Alter , 
each type of tissue plays a certain role in joint stiffness: "The joint capsule (i.e., the saclike 
structure that encloses the ends of bones) and ligaments are the most important factors, 
accounting for 47 percent of the stiffness, followed by the muscle’s fascia (41 percent), the 
tendons (10 percent), and skin (2 percent)". 

M. Alter goes on to say that efforts to increase flexibility should be directed at the 
muscle’s fascia however. This is because it has the most elastic tissue, and because ligaments 
and tendons (since they have less elastic tissue) are not intended to stretched very much at 
all. Overstretching them may weaken the joint’s integrity and cause destabilization (which 
increases the risk of injury). 

When connective tissue is overused, the tissue becomes fatigued and may tear, which 
also limits flexibility. When connective tissue is unused or under used, it provides significant 
resistance and limits flexibility. The elastin begins to fray and loses some of its elasticity, 
and the collagen increases in stiffness and in density. Aging has some of the same effects on 
connective tissue that lack of use has. 

2.2.2 How Aging Affects Flexibility 

With appropriate training, flexibility can, and should, be developed at all ages. This 
does not imply, however, that flexibility can be developed at the same rate by everyone. In 
general, the older you are, the longer it will take to develop the desired level of flexibility. 
Hopefully, you’ll be more patient if you’re older. 

According to M. Alter , the main reason we become less flexible as we get older is a 
result of certain changes that take place in our connective tissues. As we age, our bodies 
gradually dehydrate to some extent. It is believed that "stretching stimulates the production 
or retention of lubricants between the connective tissue fibers, thus preventing the formation 
of adhesions". Hence, exercise can delay some of the loss of flexibility that occurs due to 
the aging process. 

M. Alter further states that some of the physical changes attributed to aging are the 
following: 




Chapter 2: Flexibility 



14 



• An increased amount of calcium deposits, adhesions, and cross-links in the body 

• An increase in the level of fragmentation and dehydration 

• Changes in the chemical structure of the tissues. 

• Loss of suppleness due to the replacement of muscle fibers with fatty, collagenous fibers. 

This does not mean that you should give up trying to achieve flexibility if you are old 
or inflexible. It just means that you need to work harder, and more carefully, for a longer 
period of time when attempting to increase flexibility. Increases in the ability of muscle 
tissues and connective tissues to elongate (stretch) can be achieved at any age. 



2.3 Strength and Flexibility 

Strength training and flexibility training should go hand in hand. It is a common miscon- 
ception that there must always be a trade-off between flexibility and strength. Obviously, if 
you neglect flexibility training altogether in order to train for strength then you are certainly 
sacrificing flexibility (and vice versa). However, performing exercises for both strength and 
flexibility need not sacrifice either one. As a matter of fact, flexibility training and strength 
training can actually enhance one another. 



2.3.1 Why Bodybuilders Should Stretch 

One of the best times to stretch is right after a strength workout such as weightlifting. 
Static stretching of fatigued muscles (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretching], page 18) performed 
immediately following the exercise(s) that caused the fatigue, helps not only to increase 
flexibility, but also enhances the promotion of muscular development (muscle growth), and 
will actually help decrease the level of post-exercise soreness. Here’s why: 

After you have used weights (or other means) to overload and fatigue your muscles, your 
muscles retain a "pump" and are shortened somewhat. This "shortening" is due mostly to 
the repetition of intense muscle activity that often only takes the muscle through part of its 
full range of motion. This "pump" makes the muscle appear bigger. The "pumped" muscle 
is also full of lactic acid and other by-products from exhaustive exercise. If the muscle is 
not stretched afterward, it will retain this decreased range of motion (it sort of "forgets" 
how to make itself as long as it could) and the buildup of lactic acid will cause post-exercise 
soreness. Static stretching of the "pumped" muscle helps it to become "looser", and to 
"remember" its full range of movement. It also helps to remove lactic acid and other waste- 
products from the muscle. While it is true that stretching the "pumped" muscle will make 
it appear visibly smaller, it does not decrease the muscle’s size or inhibit muscle growth. It 
merely reduces the "tightness" (contraction) of the muscles so that they do not "bulge" as 
much. 

Also, strenuous workouts will often cause damage to the muscle’s connective tissue. 
The tissue heals in 1 to 2 days but it is believed that the tissues heal at a shorter length 
(decreasing muscular development as well as flexibility). To prevent the tissues from healing 
at a shorter length, physiologists recommend static stretching after strength workouts. 




Chapter 2: Flexibility 



15 



2.3.2 Why Contortionists Should Strengthen 

You should be "tempering" (or balancing) your flexibility training with strength training 
(and vice versa). Do not perform stretching exercises for a given muscle group without 
also performing strength exercises for that same group of muscles. Judy Alter, in her book 
Stretch and Strengthen, recommends stretching muscles after performing strength exercises, 
and performing strength exercises for every muscle you stretch. In other words: "Strengthen 
what you stretch, and stretch after you strengthen!" 

The reason for this is that flexibility training on a regular basis causes connective tissues 
to stretch which in turn causes them to loosen (become less taut) and elongate. When 
the connective tissue of a muscle is weak, it is more likely to become damaged due to 
overstretching, or sudden, powerful muscular contractions. The likelihood of such injury can 
be prevented by strengthening the muscles bound by the connective tissue. Kurz suggests 
dynamic strength training consisting of light dynamic exercises with weights (lots of reps, 
not too much weight), and isometric tension exercises. If you also lift weights, dynamic 
strength training for a muscle should occur before subjecting that muscle to an intense 
weightlifting workout. This helps to pre-exhaust the muscle first, making it easier (and 
faster) to achieve the desired overload in an intense strength workout. Attempting to 
perform dynamic strength training after an intense weightlifting workout would be largely 
ineffective. 

If you are working on increasing (or maintaining) flexibility then it is very important 
that your strength exercises force your muscles to take the joints through their full range 
of motion. According to Kurz, Repeating movements that do not employ a full range of 
motion in the joints (like cycling, certain weightlifting techniques, and pushups) can cause 
of shortening of the muscles surrounding the joints. This is because the nervous control of 
length and tension in the muscles are set at what is repeated most strongly and/or most 
frequently. 

2.4 Overflexibility 

It is possible for the muscles of a joint to become too flexible. According to SynerStretch, 
there is a tradeoff between flexibility and stability. As you get "looser" or more limber in 
a particular joint, less support is given to the joint by its surrounding muscles. Excessive 
flexibility can be just as bad as not enough because both increase your risk of injury. 

Once a muscle has reached its absolute maximum length, attempting to stretch the 
muscle further only serves to stretch the ligaments and put undue stress upon the tendons 
(two things that you do not want to stretch). Ligaments will tear when stretched more 
than 6% of their normal length. Tendons are not even supposed to be able to lengthen. 
Even when stretched ligaments and tendons do not tear, loose joints and/or a decrease in 
the joint’s stability can occur (thus vastly increasing your risk of injury). 

Once you have achieved the desired level of flexibility for a muscle or set of muscles 
and have maintained that level for a solid week, you should discontinue any isometric or 
PNF stretching of that muscle until some of its flexibility is lost (see Section 3.6 [Isometric 
Stretching], page 19, and see Section 3.7 [PNF Stretching], page 20). 




Chapter 2: Flexibility 



16 




Chapter 3: Types of Stretching 



17 



3 Types of Stretching 

Just as there are different types of flexibility, there are also different types of stretching. 
Stretches are either dynamic (meaning they involve motion) or static (meaning they involve 
no motion). Dynamic stretches affect dynamic flexibility and static stretches affect static 
flexibility (and dynamic flexibility to some degree). 

The different types of stretching are: 

1. ballistic stretching 

2. dynamic stretching 

3. active stretching 

4. passive (or relaxed) stretching 

5. static stretching 

6. isometric stretching 

7. PNF stretching 

3.1 Ballistic Stretching 

Ballistic stretching uses the momentum of a moving body or a limb in an attempt to force 
it beyond its normal range of motion. This is stretching, or "warming up", by bouncing into 
(or out of) a stretched position, using the stretched muscles as a spring which pulls you out 
of the stretched position, (e.g. bouncing down repeatedly to touch your toes.) This type 
of stretching is not considered useful and can lead to injury. It does not allow your muscles 
to adjust to, and relax in, the stretched position. It may instead cause them to tighten up 
by repeatedly activating the stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex], page 8). 

3.2 Dynamic Stretching 

Dynamic stretching , according to Kurz , "involves moving parts of your body and gradu- 
ally increasing reach, speed of movement, or both." Do not confuse dynamic stretching with 
ballistic stretching! Dynamic stretching consists of controlled leg and arm swings that take 
you (gently!) to the limits of your range of motion. Ballistic stretches involve trying to force 
a part of the body beyond its range of motion. In dynamic stretches, there are no bounces 
or "jerky" movements. An example of dynamic stretching would be slow, controlled leg 
swings, arm swings, or torso twists. 

Dynamic stretching improves dynamic flexibility and is quite useful as part of your warm- 
up for an active or aerobic workout (such as a dance or martial-arts class). See Section 4.1 
[Warming Up], page 25. 

According to Kurz , dynamic stretching exercises should be performed in sets of 8-12 
repetitions. Be sure to stop when and if you feel tired. Tired muscles have less elasticity 
which decreases the range of motion used in your movements. Continuing to exercise when 
you are tired serves only to reset the nervous control of your muscle length at the reduced 
range of motion used in the exercise (and will cause a loss of flexibility). Once you attain a 




Chapter 3: Types of Stretching 



18 



maximal range of motion for a joint in any direction you should stop doing that movement 
during that workout. Tired and overworked muscles won’t attain a full range of motion 
and the muscle’s kinesthetic memory will remember the repeated shorted range of motion, 
which you will then have to overcome before you can make further progress. 

3.3 Active Stretching 

Active stretching is also referred to as static-active stretching. An active stretch is one 
where you assume a position and then hold it there with no assistance other than using the 
strength of your agonist muscles (see Section 1.4 [Cooperating Muscle Groups], page 5). 
For example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it there without anything (other 
than your leg muscles themselves) to keep the leg in that extended position. The tension of 
the agonists in an active stretch helps to relax the muscles being stretched (the antagonists) 
by reciprocal inhibition (see Section 1.6.4 [Reciprocal Inhibition], page 9). 

Active stretching increases active flexibility and strengthens the agonistic muscles. Ac- 
tive stretches are usually quite difficult to hold and maintain for more than 10 seconds and 
rarely need to be held any longer than 15 seconds. 

Many of the movements (or stretches) found in various forms of yoga are active stretches. 

3.4 Passive Stretching 

Passive stretching is also referred to as relaxed stretching, and as static-passive stretch- 
ing. A passive stretch is one where you assume a position and hold it with some other part 
of your body, or with the assistance of a partner or some other apparatus. For example, 
bringing your leg up high and then holding it there with your hand. The splits is an example 
of a passive stretch (in this case the floor is the "apparatus" that you use to maintain your 
extended position). 

Slow, relaxed stretching is useful in relieving spasms in muscles that are healing after an 
injury. Obviously, you should check with your doctor first to see if it is okay to attempt to 
stretch the injured muscles (see Section 4.12 [Pain and Discomfort], page 35). 

Relaxed stretching is also very good for "cooling down" after a workout and helps reduce 
post-workout muscle fatigue, and soreness. See Section 4.2 [Cooling Down], page 28. 

3.5 Static Stretching 

Many people use the term "passive stretching" and "static stretching" interchangeably. 
However, there are a number of people who make a distinction between the two. According 
to M. Alter, Static stretching consists of stretching a muscle (or group of muscles) to its 
farthest point and then maintaining or holding that position, whereas Passive stretching 
consists of a relaxed person who is relaxed (passive) while some external force (either a 
person or an apparatus) brings the joint through its range of motion. 

Notice that the definition of passive stretching given in the previous section encompasses 
both of the above definitions. Throughout this document, when the term static stretching 




Chapter 3: Types of Stretching 



19 



or passive stretching is used, its intended meaning is the definition of passive stretching 
as described in the previous section. You should be aware of these alternative meanings, 
however, when looking at other references on stretching. 

3.6 Isometric Stretching 

Isometric stretching is a type of static stretching (meaning it does not use motion) 
which involves the resistance of muscle groups through isometric contractions (tensing) 
of the stretched muscles (see Section 1.5 [Types of Muscle Contractions], page 6). The 
use of isometric stretching is one of the fastest ways to develop increased static-passive 
flexibility and is much more effective than either passive stretching or active stretching 
alone. Isometric stretches also help to develop strength in the "tensed" muscles (which 
helps to develop static-active flexibility), and seems to decrease the amount of pain usually 
associated with stretching. 

The most common ways to provide the needed resistance for an isometric stretch are to 
apply resistance manually to one’s own limbs, to have a partner apply the resistance, or to 
use an apparatus such as a wall (or the floor) to provide resistance. 

An example of manual resistance would be holding onto the ball of your foot to keep it 
from flexing while you are using the muscles of your calf to try and straighten your instep 
so that the toes are pointed. 

An example of using a partner to provide resistance would be having a partner hold 
your leg up high (and keep it there) while you attempt to force your leg back down to the 
ground. 

An example of using the wall to provide resistance would be the well known "push-the- 
wall" calf-stretch where you are actively attempting to move the wall (even though you 
know you can’t). 

Isometric stretching is not recommended for children and adolescents whose bones are 
still growing. These people are usually already flexible enough that the strong stretches 
produced by the isometric contraction have a much higher risk of damaging tendons and 
connective tissue. Kurz strongly recommends preceding any isometric stretch of a muscle 
with dynamic strength training for the muscle to be stretched. A full session of isometric 
stretching makes a lot of demands on the muscles being stretched and should not be per- 
formed more than once per day for a given group of muscles (ideally, no more than once 
every 36 hours). 

The proper way to perform an isometric stretch is as follows: 

1. Assume the position of a passive stretch for the desired muscle. 

2. Next, tense the stretched muscle for 7-15 seconds (resisting against some force that will 
not move, like the floor or a partner). 

3. Finally, relax the muscle for at least 20 seconds. 

Some people seem to recommend holding the isometric contraction for longer than 15 
seconds, but according to SynerStretch (the videotape), research has shown that this is not 
necessary. So you might as well make your stretching routine less time consuming. 




Chapter 3: Types of Stretching 



20 



3.6.1 How Isometric Stretching Works 

Recall from our previous discussion (see Section 1.2.1 [How Muscles Contract], page 3) 
that there is no such thing as a partially contracted muscle fiber: when a muscle is con- 
tracted, some of the fibers contract and some remain at rest (more fibers are recruited as 
the load on the muscle increases). Similarly, when a muscle is stretched, some of the fibers 
are elongated and some remain at rest (see Section 1.6 [What Happens When You Stretch], 
page 7). During an isometric contraction, some of the resting fibers are being pulled upon 
from both ends by the muscles that are contracting. The result is that some of those resting 
fibers stretch! 

Normally, the handful of fibers that stretch during an isometric contraction are not very 
significant. The true effectiveness of the isometric contraction occurs when a muscle that 
is already in a stretched position is subjected to an isometric contraction. In this case, 
some of the muscle fibers are already stretched before the contraction, and, if held long 
enough, the initial passive stretch overcomes the stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch 
Reflex], page 8) and triggers the lengthening reaction (see Section 1.6.3 [The Lengthening 
Reaction], page 9), inhibiting the stretched fibers from contracting. At this point, according 
to SynerStretch , when you isometrically contracted, some resting fibers would contract and 
some resting fibers would stretch. Furthermore, many of the fibers already stretching may 
be prevented from contracting by the inverse myotatic reflex (the lengthening reaction) and 
would stretch even more. When the isometric contraction is completed, the contracting 
fibers return to their resting length but the stretched fibers would remember their stretched 
length and (for a period of time) retain the ability to elongate past their previous limit. This 
enables the entire muscle to stretch beyonds its initial maximum and results in increased 
flexibility. 

The reason that the stretched fibers develop and retain the ability to stretch beyond their 
normal limit during an isometric stretch has to do with the muscle spindles (see Section 1.6.1 
[Proprioceptors], page 7): The signal which tells the muscle to contract voluntarily, also 
tells the muscle spindle’s (intrafusal) muscle fibers to shorten, increasing sensitivity of the 
stretch reflex. This mechanism normally maintains the sensitivity of the muscle spindle 
as the muscle shortens during contraction. This allows the muscle spindles to habituate 
(become accustomed) to an even further-lengthened position. 



3.7 PNF Stretching 

PNF stretching is currently the fastest and most effective way known to increase static- 
passive flexibility. PNF is an acronym for proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation. It 
is not really a type of stretching but is a technique of combining passive stretching (see 
Section 3.4 [Passive Stretching], page 18) and isometric stretching (see Section 3.6 [Isometric 
Stretching], page 19) in order to achieve maximum static flexibility. Actually, the term PNF 
stretching is itself a misnomer. PNF was initially developed as a method of rehabilitating 
stroke victims. PNF refers to any of several post-isometric relaxation stretching techniques 
in which a muscle group is passively stretched, then contracts isometrically against resistance 
while in the stretched position, and then is passively stretched again through the resulting 
increased range of motion. PNF stretching usually employs the use of a partner to provide 




Chapter 3: Types of Stretching 



21 



resistance against the isometric contraction and then later to passively take the joint through 
its increased range of motion. It may be performed, however, without a partner, although 
it is usually more effective with a partner’s assistance. 

Most PNF stretching techniques employ isometric agonist contraction/relaxation where 
the stretched muscles are contracted isometrically and then relaxed. Some PNF techniques 
also employ isometric antagonist contraction where the antagonists of the stretched muscles 
are contracted. In all cases, it is important to note that the stretched muscle should be 
rested (and relaxed) for at least 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique. The 
most common PNF stretching techniques are: 

the hold-relax 

This technique is also called the contract-relax. After assuming an initial passive 
stretch, the muscle being stretched is isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds, 
after which the muscle is briefly relaxed for 2-3 seconds, and then immediately 
subjected to a passive stretch which stretches the muscle even further than the 
initial passive stretch. This final passive stretch is held for 10-15 seconds. The 
muscle is then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique. 

the hold-relax-contract 

This technique is also called the contract-relax-contract. and the contract-relax- 
ant agonist- contract (or CRAC). It involves performing two isometric contrac- 
tions: first of the agonists, then, of the antagonists. The first part is similar 
to the hold-relax where, after assuming an initial passive stretch, the stretched 
muscle is isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds. Then the muscle is relaxed 
while its antagonist immediately performs an isometric contraction that is held 
for 7-15 seconds. The muscles are then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing 
another PNF technique. 

the hold-relax-swing 

This technique (and a similar technique called the hold-relax-bounce) actually 
involves the use of dynamic or ballistic stretches in conjunction with static and 
isometric stretches. It is very risky, and is successfully used only by the most 
advanced of athletes and dancers that have managed to achieve a high level of 
control over their muscle stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex], 
page 8). It is similar to the hold-relax technique except that a dynamic or 
ballistic stretch is employed in place of the final passive stretch. 

Notice that in the hold-relax-contract, there is no final passive stretch. It is replaced 
by the antagonist-contraction which, via reciprocal inhibition (see Section 1.6.4 [Reciprocal 
Inhibition], page 9), serves to relax and further stretch the muscle that was subjected to 
the initial passive stretch. Because there is no final passive stretch, this PNF technique is 
considered one of the safest PNF techniques to perform (it is less likely to result in torn 
muscle tissue). Some people like to make the technique even more intense by adding the 
final passive stretch after the second isometric contraction. Although this can result in 
greater flexibility gains, it also increases the likelihood of injury. 

Even more risky are dynamic and ballistic PNF stretching techniques like the hold- 
relax-swing, and the hold-relax-bounce. If you are not a professional athlete or dancer, 




Chapter 3: Types of Stretching 



22 



you probably have no business attempting either of these techniques (the likelihood of 
injury is just too great). Even professionals should not attempt these techniques without 
the guidance of a professional coach or training advisor. These two techniques have the 
greatest potential for rapid flexibility gains, but only when performed by people who have a 
sufficiently high level of control of the stretch reflex in the muscles that are being stretched. 

Like isometric stretching (see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching], page 19), PNF stretching 
is also not recommended for children and people whose bones are still growing (for the same 
reasons. Also like isometric stretching, PNF stretching helps strengthen the muscles that are 
contracted and therefore is good for increasing active flexibility as well as passive flexibility. 
Furthermore, as with isometric stretching, PNF stretching is very strenuous and should be 
performed for a given muscle group no more than once per day (ideally, no more than once 
per 36 hour period). 

The initial recommended procedure for PNF stretching is to perform the desired PNF 
technique 3-5 times for a given muscle group (resting 20 seconds between each repetition). 
However, HFLTA cites a 1987 study whose results suggest that performing 3-5 repetitions 
of a PNF technique for a given muscle group is not necessarily any more effective than 
performing the technique only once. As a result, in order to decrease the amount of time 
taken up by your stretching routine (without decreasing its effectiveness), HFLTA recom- 
mends performing only one PNF technique per muscle group stretched in a given stretching 
session. 

3.7.1 How PNF Stretching Works 

Remember that during an isometric stretch, when the muscle performing the isometric 
contraction is relaxed, it retains its ability to stretch beyond its initial maximum length (see 
Section 3.6.1 [How Isometric Stretching Works], page 20). Well, PNF tries to take immediate 
advantage of this increased range of motion by immediately subjecting the contracted muscle 
to a passive stretch. 

The isometric contraction of the stretched muscle accomplishes several things: 

1. As explained previously (see Section 3.6.1 [How Isometric Stretching Works], page 20), 
it helps to train the stretch receptors of the muscle spindle to immediately accommodate 
a greater muscle length. 

2. The intense muscle contraction, and the fact that it is maintained for a period of 
time, serves to fatigue many of the fast-twitch fibers of the contracting muscles (see 
Section 1.2.2 [Fast and Slow Muscle Fibers], page 4). This makes it harder for the 
fatigued muscle fibers to contract in resistance to a subsequent stretch (see Section 1.6.2 
[The Stretch Reflex], page 8). 

3. The tension generated by the contraction activates the golgi tendon organ (see Sec- 
tion 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors], page 7), which inhibits contraction of the muscle via the 
lengthening reaction (see Section 1.6.3 [The Lengthening Reaction], page 9). Voluntary 
contraction during a stretch increases tension on the muscle, activating the golgi tendon 
organs more than the stretch alone. So, when the voluntary contraction is stopped, the 
muscle is even more inhibited from contracting against a subsequent stretch. 




Chapter 3: Types of Stretching 



23 



PNF stretching techniques take advantage of the sudden "vulnerability" of the muscle 
and its increased range of motion by using the period of time immediately following the 
isometric contraction to train the stretch receptors to get used to this new, increased, 
range of muscle length. This is what the final passive (or in some cases, dynamic) stretch 
accomplishes. 




Chapter 3: Types of Stretching 



24 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



25 



4 How to Stretch 

When done properly, stretching can do more than just increase flexibility. According to 
M. Alter, benefits of stretching include: 

• enhanced physical fitness 

• enhanced ability to learn and perform skilled movements 

• increased mental and physical relaxation 

• enhanced development of body awareness 

• reduced risk of injury to joints, muscles, and tendons 

• reduced muscular soreness 

• reduced muscular tension 

• increased suppleness due to stimulation of the production of chemicals which lubricate 
connective tissues (see Section 1.3 [Connective Tissue], page 5) 

• reduced severity of painful menstruation ( dysmenorrhea ) in females 

Unfortunately, even those who stretch do not always stretch properly and hence do not 
reap some or all of these benefits. Some of the most common mistakes made when stretching 
are: 

• improper warm-up 

• inadequate rest between workouts 

• overstretching 

• performing the wrong exercises 

• performing exercises in the wrong (or sub-optimal) sequence 

In this chapter, we will try to show you how to avoid these problems, and others, and 
present some of the most effective methods for realizing all the benefits of stretching. 

4.1 Warming Up 

Stretching is not warming up! It is, however, a very important part of warming up. 
Warming up is quite literally the process of "warming up" (i.e., raising your core body 
temperature). A proper warm-up should raise your body temperature by one or two degrees 
Celsius (1.4 to 2.8 degrees Fahrenheit) and is divided into three phases: 

1. general warm-up 

2. stretching 

3. sport-specific activity 

It is very important that you perform the general warm-up before you stretch. It is 
not a good idea to attempt to stretch before your muscles are warm (something which the 
general warm-up accomplishes). 

Warming up can do more than just loosen stiff muscles; when done properly, it can 
actually improve performance. On the other hand, an improper warm-up, or no warm-up 
at all, can greatly increase your risk of injury from engaging in athletic activities. 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



26 



It is important to note that active stretches and isometric stretches should not be part 
of your warm-up because they are often counterproductive. The goals of the warm-up are 
(according to Kurz): "an increased awareness, improved coordination, improved elasticity 
and contractibility of muscles, and a greater efficiency of the respiratory and cardiovascular 
systems." Active stretches and isometric stretches do not help achieve these goals because 
they are likely to cause the stretched muscles to be too tired to properly perform the athletic 
activity for which you are preparing your body. 

4.1.1 General Warm-Up 

The general warm-up is divided into two parts: 

1. joint rotations 

2. aerobic activity 

These two activities should be performed in the order specified above. 

4. 1.1.1 Joint Rotations 

The general warm-up should begin with joint-rotations, starting either from your toes 
and working your way up, or from your fingers and working your way down. This facilitates 
joint motion by lubricating the entire joint with synovial fluid. Such lubrication permits 
your joints to function more easily when called upon to participate in your athletic activity. 
You should perform slow circular movements, both clockwise and counter-clockwise, until 
the joint seems to move smoothly. You should rotate the following (in the order given, or 
in the reverse order): 

f. fingers and knuckles 

2. wrists 

3. elbows 

4. shoulders 

5. neck 

6. trunk/ waist 

7. hips 

8. legs 

9. knees 

10. ankles 
ff. toes 

4. 1.1. 2 Aerobic Activity 

After you have performed the joint rotations, you should engage in at least five minutes 
of aerobic activity such as jogging, jumping rope, or any other activity that will cause a 
similar increase in your cardiovascular output (i.e., get your blood pumping). The purpose 
of this is to raise your core body temperature and get your blood flowing. Increased blood 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



27 



flow in the muscles improves muscle performance and flexibility and reduces the likelihood 
of injury. 



4.1.2 Warm-Up Stretching 

The stretching phase of your warmup should consist of two parts: 

1. static stretching 

2. dynamic stretching 

It is important that static stretches be performed before any dynamic stretches in your 
warm-up. Dynamic stretching can often result in overstretching, which damages the muscles 
(see Section 4.12.3 [Overstretching], page 37). Performing static stretches first will help 
reduce this risk of injury. 

4. 1.2.1 Static Warm-Up Stretching 

Once the general warm-up has been completed, the muscles are warmer and more elastic. 
Immediately following your general warm-up, you should engage in some slow, relaxed, static 
stretching (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretching], page 18). You should start with your back, 
followed by your upper body and lower body, stretching your muscles in the following order 
(see Section 4.8 [Exercise Order], page 33): 

1 . back 

2. sides (external obliques) 

3. neck 

4. forearms and wrists 

5. triceps 

6. chest 

7. buttocks 

8. groin (adductors) 

9. thighs (quadriceps and abductors) 

10. calves 

11. shins 

12. hamstrings 

13. instep 

Some good static stretches for these various muscles may be found in most books about 
stretching. See Appendix A [References on Stretching], page 41. Unfortunately, not every- 
one has the time to stretch all these muscles before a workout. If you are one such person, 
you should at least take the time to stretch all the muscles that will be heavily used during 
your workout. 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



28 



4. 1.2. 2 Dynamic Warm-Up Stretching 

Once you have performed your static stretches, you should engage in some light dynamic 
stretching: leg-raises, and arm-swings in all directions (see Section 3.2 [Dynamic Stretching], 
page 17). According to Kurz, you should do "as many sets as it takes to reach your maximum 
range of motion in any given direction", but do not work your muscles to the point of fatigue. 
Remember - this is just a warm-up, the real workout comes later. 

Some people are surprised to find that dynamic stretching has a place in the warm-up. 
But think about it: you are "warming up" for a workout that is (usually) going to involve 
a lot of dynamic activity. It makes sense that you should perform some dynamic exercises 
to increase your dynamic flexibility. 

4.1.3 Sport-Specific Activity 

The last part of your warm-up should be devoted to performing movements that are a 
"watered- down" version of the movements that you will be performing during your athletic 
activity. HFLTA says that the last phase of a warm-up should consist of the same movements 
that will be used during the athletic event but at a reduced intensity. Such sport-specific 
activity is beneficial because it improves coordination, balance, strength, and response time, 
and may reduce the risk of injury. 

4.2 Cooling Down 

Stretching is not a legitimate means of cooling down. It is only part of the process. 
After you have completed your workout, the best way to reduce muscle fatigue and sore- 
ness (caused by the production of lactic acid from your maximal or near-maximal muscle 
exertion) is to perform a light warm-down. This warm-down is similar to the second half of 
your warm-up (but in the reverse order). The warm-down consists of the following phases: 

1. sport-specific activity 

2. dynamic stretching 

3. static stretching 

Ideally, you should start your warm-down with about 10-20 minutes of sport-specific 
activity (perhaps only a little more intense than in your warm-up). In reality however, 
you may not always have 10-20 minutes to spare at the end of your workout. You should, 
however, attempt to perform at least 5 minutes of sport-specific activity in this case. The 
sport-specific activity should immediately be followed by stretching: First perform some 
light dynamic stretches until your heart rate slows down to its normal rate, then perform 
some static stretches. Sport-specific activity, followed by stretching, can reduce cramping, 
tightening, and soreness in fatigued muscles and will make you feel better. 

According to HFLTA, "light warm-down exercise immediately following maximal exer- 
tion is a better way of clearing lactic acid from the blood than complete rest." Furthermore, 
if you are still sore the next day, a light warm-up or warm-down is a good way to reduce lin- 
gering muscle tightness and soreness even when not performed immediately after a workout. 
See Section 4.12 [Pain and Discomfort], page 35. 




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4.3 Massage 

Many people are unaware of the beneficial role that massage can play in both strength 
training and flexibility training. Massaging a muscle, or group of muscles, immediately prior 
to performing stretching or strength exercises for those muscles, has some of the following 
benefits: 

increased blood How 

The massaging of the muscles helps to warm-up those muscles, increasing their 
blood flow and improving their circulation. 

relaxation of the massaged muscles 

The massaged muscles are more relaxed. This is particularly helpful when you 
are about to stretch those muscles. It can also help relieve painful muscle 
cramps. 

removal of metabolic waste 

The massaging action, and the improved circulation and blood flow which re- 
sults, helps to remove waste products, such as lactic acid, from the muscles. 
This is useful for relieving post-exercise soreness. 

Because of these benefits, you may wish to make massage a regular part of your stretching 
program: immediately before each stretch you perform, massage the muscles you are about 
to stretch. 



4.4 Elements of a Good Stretch 

According to SynerStretch , there are three factors to consider when determining the 
effectiveness of a particular stretching exercise: 

1. isolation 

2. leverage 

3. risk 

4.4.1 Isolation 

Ideally, a particular stretch should work only the muscles you are trying to stretch. 
Isolating the muscles worked by a given stretch means that you do not have to worry about 
having to overcome the resistance offered by more than one group of muscles. In general, 
the fewer muscles you try to stretch at once, the better. For example, you are better off 
trying to stretch one hamstring at a time than both hamstrings at once. By isolating the 
muscle you are stretching, you experience resistance from fewer muscle groups, which gives 
you greater control over the stretch and allows you to more easily change its intensity. As 
it turns out, the splits is not one of the best stretching exercises. Not only does it stretch 
several different muscle groups all at once, it also stretches them in both legs at once. 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



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4.4.2 Leverage 

Having leverage during a stretch means having sufficient control over how intense the 
stretch becomes, and how fast. If you have good leverage, not only are you better able to 
achieve the desired intensity of the stretch, but you do not need to apply as much force 
to your outstretched limb in order to effectively increase the intensity of the stretch. This 
gives you greater control. 

According to SynerStretch , the best stretches (those which are most effective) provide 
the greatest mechanical advantage over the stretched muscle. By using good leverage, it 
becomes easier to overcome the resistance of inflexible muscles (the same is true of isolation). 
Many stretching exercises (good and bad) can be made easier and more effective simply by 
adjusting them to provide greater leverage. 

4.4.3 Risk 

Although a stretch may be very effective in terms of providing the athlete with ample 
leverage and isolation, the potential risk of injury from performing the stretch must be 
taken into consideration. Once again, SynerStretch says it best: Even an exercise offering 
great leverage and great isolation may still be a poor choice to perform. Some exercises 
can simply cause too much stress to the joints (which may result in injury). They may 
involve rotations that strain tendons or ligaments, or put pressure on the disks of the back, 
or contain some other twist or turn that may cause injury to seemingly unrelated parts of 
the body. 

4.5 Some Risky Stretches 

The following stretches (many of which are commonly performed) are considered risky 
(M. Alter uses the term ‘X’-rated) due to the fact that they have a very high risk of injury 
for the athlete that performs them. This does not mean that these stretches should never 
be performed. However, great care should be used when attempting any of these stretches. 
Unless you are an advanced athlete or are being coached by a qualified instructor (such as 
a certified Yoga instructor, physical therapist, or professional trainer), you can probably do 
without them (or find alternative stretching exercises to perform). When performed cor- 
rectly with the aid of an instructor however, some of these stretches can be quite beneficial. 
Each of these stretches is illustrated in detail in the section X-Rated Exercises of M. Alter: 

the yoga plough 

In this exercise, you lie down on your back and then try to sweep your legs up 
and over, trying to touch your knees to your ears. This position places excessive 
stress on the lower back, and on the discs of the spine. Not to mention the fact 
that it compresses the lungs and heart, and makes it very difficult to breathe. 
This particular exercise also stretches a region that is frequently flexed as a 
result of improper posture. This stretch is a prime example of an exercise that 
is very easy to do incorrectly. However, with proper instruction and attention 
to body position and alignment, this stretch can be performed successfully with 
a minimal amount of risk and can actually improve spinal health and mobility. 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



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the traditional backbend 

In this exercise, your back is maximally arched with the soles of your feet and 
the palms of your hands both flat on the floor, and your neck tilted back. This 
position squeezes (compresses) the spinal discs and pinches nerve fibers in your 
back. 

the traditional hurdler's stretch 

This exercise has you sit on the ground with one leg straight in front of you, 
and with the other leg fully flexed (bent) behind you, as you lean back and 
stretch the quadricep of the flexed leg. The two legged version of this stretch is 
even worse for you, and involves fully bending both legs behind you on either 
side. The reason this stretch is harmful is that it stretches the medial ligaments 
of the knee (remember, stretching ligaments and tendons is bad) and crushes 
the meniscus. It can also result in slipping of the knee cap from being twisted 
and compressed. 

straight-legged toe touches 

In this stretch, your legs are straight (either together or spread apart) and your 
back is bent over while you attempt to touch your toes or the floor. If you 
do not have the ability to support much of your weight with your hands when 
performing this exercise, your knees are likely to hyperextend. This position 
can also place a great deal of pressure on the vertebrae of the lower lumbar. 
Furthermore, if you choose to have your legs spread apart, it places more stress 
on the knees, which can sometimes result in permanent deformity. 

torso twists 

Performing sudden, intense twists of the torso, especially with weights, while 
in an upright (erect) position can tear tissue (by exceeding the momentum 
absorbing capacity of the stretched tissues) and can strain the ligaments of the 
knee. 

inverted stretches 

This is any stretch where you "hang upside down". Staying inverted for too long 
increases your blood pressure and may even rupture blood vessels (particularly 
in the eyes). Inverted positions are especially discouraged for anyone with spinal 
problems. 



4.6 Duration, Counting, and Repetition 

One thing many people seem to disagree about is how long to hold a passive stretch in 
its position. Various sources seem to suggest that they should be held for as little as 10 
seconds to as long as a full minute (or even several minutes). The truth is that no one really 
seems to know for sure. According to HFLTA there exists some controversy over how long 
a stretch should be held. Many researchers recommend 30-60 seconds. For the hamstrings, 
research suggests that 15 seconds may be sufficient, but it is not yet known whether 15 
seconds is sufficient for any other muscle group. 

A good common ground seems to be about 20 seconds. Children, and people whose 
bones are still growing, do not need to hold a passive stretch this long (and, in fact, Kurz 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



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strongly discourages it). Holding the stretch for about 7-10 seconds should be sufficient for 
this younger group of people. 

A number of people like to count (either out loud or to themselves) while they stretch. 
While counting during a stretch is not, by itself, particularly important . . . what is important 
is the setting of a definite goal for each stretching exercise performed. Counting during a 
stretch helps many people achieve this goal. 

Many sources also suggest that passive stretches should be performed in sets of 2-5 
repetitions with a 15-30 second rest in between each stretch. 



4.7 Breathing During Stretching 

Proper breathing control is important for a successful stretch. Proper breathing helps to 
relax the body, increases blood flow throughout the body, and helps to mechanically remove 
lactic acid and other by-products of exercise. 

You should be taking slow, relaxed breaths when you stretch, trying to exhale as the 
muscle is stretching. Some even recommend increasing the intensity of the stretch only 
while exhaling, holding the stretch in its current position at all other times (this doesn’t 
apply to isometric stretching). 

The proper way to breathe is to inhale slowly through the nose, expanding the abdomen 
(not the chest); hold the breath a moment; then exhale slowly through the nose or mouth. 
Inhaling through the nose has several purposes including cleaning the air and insuring 
proper temperature and humidity for oxygen transfer into the lungs. The breath should be 
natural and the diaphragm and abdomen should remain soft. There should be no force of 
the breath. Some experts seem to prefer exhaling through the nose (as opposed to through 
the mouth) saying that exhaling through the mouth causes depression on the heart and 
that problems will ensue over the long term. 

The rate of breathing should be controlled through the use of the glottis in the back of 
the throat. This produces a very soft "hm-m-m-mn" sound inside the throat as opposed to a 
sniffing sound in the nasal sinuses. The exhalation should be controlled in a similar manner, 
but if you are exhaling through the mouth, it should be with more of an "ah-h-h-h-h" sound, 
like a sigh of relief. 

As you breathe in, the diaphragm presses downward on the internal organs and their 
associated blood vessels, squeezing the blood out of them. As you exhale, the abdomen, its 
organs and muscles, and their blood vessels flood with new blood. This rhythmic contraction 
and expansion of the abdominal blood vessels is partially responsible for the circulation of 
blood in the body. Also, the rhythmic pumping action helps to remove waste products 
from the muscles in the torso. This pumping action is referred to as the respiratory pump. 
The respiratory pump is important during stretching because increased blood flow to the 
stretched muscles improves their elasticity, and increases the rate at which lactic acid is 
purged from them. 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



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4.8 Exercise Order 

Many people are unaware of the fact that the order in which you perform your stretching 
exercises is important. Quite often, when we perform a particular stretch, it actually 
stretches more than one group of muscles: the muscles that the stretch is primarily intended 
for, and other supporting muscles that are also stretched but which do not receive the 
"brunt" of the stretch. These supporting muscles usually function as synergists for the 
muscles being stretched (see Section 1.4 [Cooperating Muscle Groups], page 5). This is the 
basis behind a principle that SynerStretch calls the interdependency of muscle groups. 

Before performing a stretch intended for a particular muscle, but which actually stretches 
several muscles, you should first stretch each of that muscle’s synergists. The benefit of this 
is that you are able to better stretch the primary muscles by not allowing the supporting- 
muscles the opportunity to be a limiting factor in how "good" a stretch you can attain for 
a particular exercise. 

Ideally, it is best to perform a stretch that isolates a particular muscle group, but this 
is not always possible. According to SynerStretch: "by organizing the exercises within 
a stretching routine according to the principle of interdependency of muscle groups, you 
minimize the effort required to perform the routine, and maximize the effectiveness of 
the individual exercises." This is what Health For Life (in all of their publications) calls 
synergism: "combining elements to create a whole that is greater than the mere sum of its 
parts." 

For example, a stretch intended primarily for the hamstrings may also make some de- 
mands upon the calves and buttocks (and even the lower back) but mostly, it stretches the 
hamstrings. In this case, it would be beneficial to stretch the lower back, buttocks, and 
calves first (in that order, using stretches intended primarily for those muscles) before they 
need to be used in a stretch that is intended primarily for the hamstrings. 

As a general rule, you should usually do the following when putting together a stretching 
routine: 

• stretch your back (upper and lower) first 

• stretch your sides after stretching your back 

• stretch your buttocks before stretching your groin or your hamstrings 

• stretch your calves before stretching your hamstrings 

• stretch your shins before stretching your quadriceps (if you do shin stretches) 

• stretch your arms before stretching your chest 



4.9 When to Stretch 

The best time to stretch is when your muscles are warmed up. If they are not already 
warm before you wish to stretch, then you need to warm them up yourself, usually by per- 
forming some type of brief aerobic activity (see Section 4.1.1 [General Warm-Up], page 26). 
Obviously, stretching is an important part of warming-up before (see Section 4.1 [Warming 
Up], page 25), and cooling-down after a workout (see Section 4.2 [Cooling Down], page 28). 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



34 



If the weather is very cold, or if you are feeling very stiff, then you need to take extra care 
to warm-up before you stretch in order to reduce the risk of injuring yourself. 

Many of us have our own internal body-clock, or circadian rhythm as, it is more formally 
called: Some of us are "early morning people" while others consider themselves to be "late- 
nighters". Being aware of your circadian rhythm should help you decide when it is best for 
you to stretch (or perform any other type of activity). Gummerson says that most people 
are more flexible in the afternoon than in the morning, peaking from about 2:30pm-4pm. 
Also, according to HFLTA, evidence seems to suggest that, during any given day, strength 
and flexibility are at their peak in the late afternoon or early evening. If this is correct then 
it would seem to indicate that, all else being equal, you may be better off performing your 
workout right after work rather than before work. 

4.9.1 Early-Morning Stretching 

On the other hand, according to Kurz , "if you need [or want] to perform movements re- 
quiring considerable flexibility with [little or] no warm-up, you ought to make early morning 
stretching a part of your routine." In order to do this properly, you need to first perform 
a general warm-up (see Section 4.1.1 [General Warm-Up], page 26). You should then be- 
gin your early morning stretching by first performing some static stretches, followed by 
some light dynamic stretches. Basically, your early morning stretching regimen should be 
almost identical to a complete warm-up (see Section 4.1 [Warming Up], page 25). The 
only difference is that you may wish to omit any sport-specific activity (see Section 4.1.3 
[Sport-Specific Activity], page 28), although it may be beneficial to perform it if you have 
time. 

4.10 Stretching With a Partner 

When done properly, stretches performed with the assistance of a partner can be more 
effective than stretches performed without a partner. This is especially true of isometric 
stretches (see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching], page 19) and PNF stretches (see Section 3.7 
[PNF Stretching], page 20). The problem with using a partner, however, is that the partner 
does not feel what you feel, and thus cannot respond as quickly to any discomfort that might 
prompt you to immediately reduce the intensity (or some other aspect) of the stretch. This 
can greatly increase your risk of injury while performing a particular exercise. 

If you do choose to stretch with a partner, make sure that it is someone you trust to pay 
close attention to you while you stretch, and to act appropriately when you signal that you 
are feeling pain or discomfort. 

4.11 Stretching to Increase Flexibility 

When stretching for the purpose of increasing overall flexibility, a stretching routine 
should accomplish, at the very least, two goals: 

1. To train your stretch receptors to become accustomed to greater muscle length (see 
Section 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors], page 7). 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



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2. To reduce the resistance of connective tissues to muscle elongation (see Section 2.2.1 
[How Connective Tissue Affects Flexibility], page 13). 

If you are attempting to increase active flexibility (see Section 2.1 [Types of Flexibility], 
page 11), you will also want to strengthen the muscles responsible for holding the stretched 
limbs in their extended positions. 

Before composing a particular stretching routine, you must first decide which types 
of flexibility you wish to increase (see Section 2.1 [Types of Flexibility], page 11), and 
which stretching methods are best for achieving them (see Chapter 3 [Types of Stretching], 
page 17). The best way to increase dynamic flexibility is by performing dynamic stretches, 
supplemented with static stretches. The best way to increase active flexibility is by per- 
forming active stretches, supplemented with static stretches. The fastest and most effective 
way currently known to increase passive flexibility is by performing PNF stretches (see 
Section 3.7 [PNF Stretching], page 20). 

If you are very serious about increasing overall flexibility, then I recommend religiously 
adhering to the following guidelines: 

• Perform early- morning stretching everyday (see Section 4.9.1 [Early- Morning Stretch- 
ing], page 34). 

• Warm-up properly before any and all athletic activities. Make sure to give yourself 
ample time to perform the complete warm-up. See Section 4.1 [Warming Up], page 25. 

• Cool-down properly after any and all athletic activities. See Section 4.2 [Cooling Down], 
page 28. 

• Always make sure your muscles are warmed-up before you stretch! 

• Perform PNF stretching every other day, and static stretching on the off days (if you 
are overzealous, you can try static stretching every day, in addition to PNF stretching 
every other day). 

Overall, you should expect to increase flexibility gradually. However, If you really com- 
mit to doing the above, you should (according to SynerStretch) achieve maximal upper-body 
flexibility within one month and maximal lower-body flexibility within two months. If you 
are older or more inflexible than most people, it will take longer than this. 

Don’t try to increase flexibility too quickly by forcing yourself. Stretch no further than 
the muscles will go without pain. See Section 4.12.3 [Overstretching], page 37. 



4.12 Pain and Discomfort 

If you are experiencing pain or discomfort before, during, or after stretching or athletic 
activity, then you need to try to identify the cause. Severe pain (particularly in the joints, 
ligaments, or tendons) usually indicates a serious injury of some sort, and you may need to 
discontinue stretching and/or exercising until you have sufficiently recovered. 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



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4.12.1 Common Causes of Muscular Soreness 

If you are experiencing soreness, stiffness, or some other form of muscular pain, then it 

may be due to one or more of the following: 

torn tissue 

Overstretching and engaging in athletic activities without a proper warm-up 
can cause microscopic tearing of muscle fibers or connective tissues. If the tear 
is not too severe, the pain will usually not appear until one or two days after the 
activity that caused the damage. If the pain occurs during or immediately after 
the activity, then it may indicate a more serious tear (which may require medical 
attention). If the pain is not too severe, then light, careful static stretching of 
the injured area is supposedly okay to perform (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretch- 
ing], page 18). It is hypothesized that torn libers heal at a shortened length, 
thus decreasing flexibility in the injured muscles. Very light stretching of the 
injured muscles helps reduce loss of flexibility resulting from the injury. Intense 
stretching of any kind, however, may only make matters worse. 

metabolic accumulation 

Overexertion and/or intense muscular activity will fatigue the muscles and cause 
them to accumulate lactic acid and other waste products. If this is the cause of 
your pain, then static stretching (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretching], page 18), 
isometric stretching (see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching], page 19), or a good 
warm-up (see Section 4.1 [Warming Up], page 25) or cool-down (see Section 4.2 
[Cooling Down], page 28) will help alleviate some of the soreness. See Sec- 
tion 2.3.1 [Why Bodybuilders Should Stretch], page 14. Massaging the sore 
muscles may also help relieve the pain (see Section 4.3 [Massage], page 29). It 
has also been claimed that supplements of vitamin C will help alleviate this 
type of pain, but controlled tests using placebos have been unable to lend cred- 
ibility to this hypothesis. The ingestion of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) 
before athletic activity has been shown to help increase the body’s buffering 
capacity and reduce the output of lactic acid. However, it can also cause urgent 
diarrhea. 

muscle spasms 

Exercising above a certain threshold can cause a decreased flow of blood to the 
active muscles. This can cause pain resulting in a protective reflex which con- 
tracts the muscle isotonically (see Section 1.5 [Types of Muscle Contractions], 
page 6). The reflex contraction causes further decreases in blood flow, which 
causes more reflex contractions, and so on, causing the muscle to spasm by re- 
peatedly contracting. One common example of this is a painful muscle cramp. 
Immediate static stretching of the cramped muscle can be helpful in relieving 
this type of pain. However, it can sometimes make things worse by activating 
the stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex], page 8), which may 
cause further muscle contractions. Massaging the cramped muscle (and trying 
to relax it) may prove more useful than stretching in relieving this type of pain 
(see Section 4.3 [Massage], page 29). 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



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4.12.2 Stretching with Pain 

If you are already experiencing some type of pain or discomfort before you begin stretch- 
ing, then it is very important that you determine the cause of your pain (see Section 4.12.1 
[Common Causes of Muscular Soreness], page 36). Once you have determined the cause 
of the pain, you are in a better position to decide whether or not you should attempt to 
stretch the affected area. 

Also, according to M. Alter, it is important to remember that some amount of soreness 
will almost always be experienced by individuals that have not stretched or exercised much 
in the last few months (this is the price you pay for being inactive). However, well-trained 
and conditioned athletes who work-out at elevated levels of intensity or difficulty can also 
become sore. You should cease exercising immediately if you feel or hear anything tearing 
or popping. Remember the acronym RICE when caring for an injured body part. RICE 
stands for: Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation. This will help to minimize the pain and 
swelling. You should then seek appropriate professional medical advice. 

4.12.3 Overstretching 

If you stretch properly, you should not be sore the day after you have stretched. If you 
are, then it may be an indication that you are overstretching and that you need to go easier 
on your muscles by reducing the intensity of some (or all) of the stretches you perform. 
Overstretching will simply increase the time it takes for you to gain greater flexibility. This 
is because it takes time for the damaged muscles to repair themselves, and to offer you the 
same flexibility as before they were injured. 

One of the easiest ways to "overstretch" is to stretch "cold" (without any warm-up). 
A "maximal cold stretch" is not necessarily a desirable thing. Just because a muscle can 
be moved to its limit without warming up doesn’t mean it is ready for the strain that a 
workout will place on it. 

Obviously, during a stretch (even when you stretch properly) you are going to feel some 
amount of discomfort. The difficulty is being able to discern when it is too much. In 
her book, Stretch and Strengthen, Judy Alter describes what she calls ouch! pain: If you 
feel like saying "ouch!" (or perhaps something even more explicit) then you should ease 
up immediately and discontinue the stretch. You should definitely feel the tension in your 
muscle, and perhaps even light, gradual "pins and needles", but if it becomes sudden, sharp, 
or uncomfortable, then you are overdoing it and are probably tearing some muscle tissue 
(or worse). In some cases, you may follow all of these guidelines when you stretch, feeling 
that you are not in any "real" pain, but still be sore the next day. If this is the case, 
then you will need to become accustomed to stretching with less discomfort (you might be 
one of those "stretching masochists" that take great pleasure in the pain that comes from 
stretching). 

Quite frequently, the progression of sensations you feel as you reach the extreme ranges 
of a stretch are: localized warmth of the stretched muscles, followed by a burning (or spasm- 
like) sensation, followed by sharp pain (or "ouch!" pain). The localized warming will usually 
occur at the origin, or point of insertion, of the stretched muscles. When you begin to feel 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



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this, it is your first clue that you may need to "back off" and reduce the intensity of the 
stretch. If you ignore (or do not feel) the warming sensation, and you proceed to the point 
where you feel a definite burning sensation in the stretched muscles, then you should ease 
up immediately and discontinue the stretch! You may not be sore yet, but you probably will 
be the following day. If your stretch gets to the point where you feel sharp pain, it is quite 
likely that the stretch has already resulted in tissue damage which may cause immediate 
pain and soreness that persists for several days. 



4.13 Performing Splits 

A lot of people seem to desire the ability to perform splits. If you are one such person, 
you should first ask yourself why you want to be able to perform the splits. If the answer 
is "So I can kick high!" or something along those lines, then being able to "do" the splits 
may not be as much help as you think it might be in achieving your goal. Doing a full split 
looks impressive, and a lot of people seem to use it as a benchmark of flexibility, but it will 
not, in and of itself, enable you to kick high. Kicking high requires dynamic flexibility (and, 
to some extent, active flexibility) whereas the splits requires passive flexibility. You need 
to discern what type of flexibility will help to achieve your goal (see Section 2.1 [Types of 
Flexibility], page 11), and then perform the types of stretching exercises that will help you 
achieve that specific type of flexibility. See Chapter 3 [Types of Stretching], page 17. 

If your goal really is "to be able to perform splits" (or to achieve maximal lower-body 
static-passive flexibility), and assuming that you already have the required range of motion 
in the hip joints to even do the splits (most people in reasonably good health without any 
hip problems do), you will need to be patient. Everyone is built differently and so the 
amount of time it will take to achieve splits will be different for different people (although 
SynerStretch suggests that it should take about two months of regular PNF stretching for 
most people to achieve their maximum split potential). The amount of time it takes will 
depend on your previous flexibility and body makeup. Anyone will see improvements in 
flexibility within weeks with consistent, frequent, and proper stretching. Trust your own 
body, take it gently, and stretch often. Try not to dwell on the splits, concentrate more on 
the stretch. Also, physiological differences in body mechanics may not allow you to be very 
flexible. If so, take that into consideration when working out. 

A stretching routine tailored to the purpose of achieving the ability to perform splits 
may be found at the end of this document. See Appendix B [Working Toward the Splits], 
page 49. 

4.13.1 Common Problems When Performing Splits 

First of all, there are two kinds of splits: front and side (the side split is often called a 
Chinese split). In a Front split, you have one leg stretched out to the front and the other 
leg stretched out to the back. In a side split, both legs are stretched out to your side. 

A common problem encountered during a side split is pain in the hip joints. Usually, the 
reason for this is that the split is being performed improperly (you may need to tilt your 
pelvis forward). 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



39 



Another common problem encountered during splits (both front and side) is pain in the 
knees. This pain can often (but not always) be alleviated by performing a slightly different 
variation of the split. See Section 4.13.2 [The Front Split], page 39. See Section 4.13.3 [The 
Side Split], page 39. 

4.13.2 The Front Split 

For front splits, the front leg should be straight and its kneecap should be facing the 
ceiling, or sky. The front foot can be pointed or flexed (there will be a greater stretch in 
the front hamstring if the front foot is flexed). The kneecap of the back leg should either 
be facing the floor (which puts more of a stretch on the quadriceps and psoas muscles), or 
out to the side (which puts more of a stretch on the inner-thigh (groin) muscles). If it is 
facing the floor, then it will probably be pretty hard to flex the back foot, since its instep 
should be on the floor. If the back kneecap is facing the side, then your back foot should 
be stretched out (not flexed) with its toes pointed to reduce undue stress upon the knee. 
Even with the toes of the back foot pointed, you may still feel that there is to much stress 
on your back knee (in which case you should make it face the floor). 



4.13.3 The Side Split 

For side splits, you can either have both kneecaps (and insteps) facing the ceiling, which 
puts more of a stretch on the hamstrings, or you can have both kneecaps (and insteps) 
face the front, which puts more of a stretch on the inner-thigh (groin) muscle. The latter 
position puts more stress on the knee joints and may cause pain in the knees for some 
people. If you perform side splits with both kneecaps (and insteps) facing the front then 
you must be sure to tilt your pelvis forward (push your buttocks to the rear) or you may 
experience pain in your hip joints. 



4.13.4 Split-Stretching Machines 

Many of you may have seen an advertisement for a split-stretching machine in your 
favorite exercise/ athletic magazine. These machines look like "benches with wings". They 
have a padded section upon which to sit, and two padded sections in which to place your 
legs (the machine should ensure that no pressure is applied upon the knees). The machine 
functions by allowing you to gradually increase the "stretch" in your adductors (inner-thigh 
muscles) through manual adjustments which increase the degree of the angle between the 
legs. Such machines usually carry a hefty price tag, often in excess of $100 (American 
currency). 

A common question people ask about these machines is "are they worth the price?". 
The answer to that question is entirely subjective. Although the machine can certainly 
be of valuable assistance in helping you achieve the goal of performing a side-split, it is 
not necessarily any better (or safer) than using a partner while you stretch. The main 
advantage that these machines have over using a partner is that they give you (not your 
partner) control of the intensity of the stretch. The amount of control provided depends on 
the individual machine. 




Chapter 4: How to Stretch 



40 



One problem with these "split-stretchers" is that there is a common tendency to use 
them to "force" a split (which can often result in injury) and/or to hold the "split" position 
for far longer periods of time than is advisable. 

The most effective use of a split-stretching machine is to use it as your "partner" to 
provide resistance for PNF stretches for the groin and inner thigh areas (see Section 3.7 
[PNF Stretching], page 20). When used properly, "split-stretchers" can provide one of the 
best ways to stretch your groin and inner-thighs without the use of a partner. 

However, they do cost quite a bit of money and they don’t necessarily give you a better 
stretch than a partner could. If you don’t want to "cough- up" the money for one of these 
machines, I recommend that you either use a partner and/or perform the lying ‘V’ stretch 
described later on in this document (see Appendix B [Working Toward the Splits], page 49). 




Appendix A: References on Stretching 



41 



Appendix A References on Stretching 

I don’t know if these are all good, but I am aware of the following books and videotapes 

about stretching: 

Stretch and Strengthen , by Judy Alter 

Softcover, Houghton Mifflin Company (Publishers) 1986, 241 pages 
$12.95 (US), ISBN: 0-395-52808-9 

(also by Judy Alter: Surviving Exercise, 

Softcover, Houghton Mifflin 1983, 127 pages, ISBN: 0-395-50073-7) 

Sport Stretch, by Michael J. Alter 

Softcover, Leisure Press (Publisher) 1990, 168 pages 
$15.95 (US), ISBN: 0-88011-381-2 

Leisure Press is a division of Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. 
in Champaign, IL and may be reached by phone at 1-800-747-4457 

Science of Stretching, by Michael J. Alter 

Clothcover, Leisure Press (Publisher) 1988, 256 pages 
$35.00 (US), ISBN: 0-97322-090-0 

Stretching, by Bob Anderson (Illustrated by Jean Anderson) 

Softcover, Random House (Publisher) $9.95 (US), ISBN: 0-394-73874-8 

Stretching For All Sports, by John E. Beaulieu 
Athletic Press 1980, Pasadena, CA 

Stretching Without Pain, by W. Paul Blakey 

Softcover, Bibliotek Books (Publishers) 1994, 78 pages 
$14.99 (US), ISBN: 1 896238 00 9 

The Muscle Book, by W. Paul Blakey 
Softcover, Bibliotek Books (Publishers) 1992, 48 pages 
$10.99 (US), ISBN: 1 873017 00 6 

Health & Fitness Excellence: The Scientific Action Plan, 
by Robert K. Cooper, Ph.D. 

Softcover, Houghton Mifflin Company (Publishers) 1989, 541 pages 
$12.95 (US), ISBN 0-395-54453-X 

Stretching for Athletics, by Pat Croce (2nd edition) 

Softcover, Leisure Press (Publisher) 1984, 128 pages 
$11.95 (US), ISBN: 0-88011-119-4 

ExTension: The 20-minutes-a-day, Yoga-Based Program to Relax, Release, 
and Rejuvenate the Average Stressed-Out over-35-year-old body, 
by Sam Dworkis with Peg Moline 
Softcover, Poseidon Press (Publisher) 1994, 192 pages 




Appendix A: References on Stretching 



42 



$20 (US), ISBN: 0-671-86680- X 

Jean Frenette’s Complete Guide to Stretching, by Jean Frenette 
Softcover, $10.95 (US), ISBN: 0-86568-145-7 

(also by Jean Frenette, Beyond Kicking: A Complete Guide to 
Kicking and Stretching, $12.95 (US), ISBN: 0-86568-154-6) 

Mobility Training for the Martial Arts, by Tony Gummerson 
Softcover, A&C Black (Publishers) 1990, 96 pages 
$15.95 (US), ISBN: 0 7136 3264 X 

SynerStretch For Total Body Flexibility, from Health For Life 
Softcover, 1984, 29 pages, $11.95 (US), ISBN: 0-944831-05-2 
(A videotape which is an updated version of this same course 
is also available for $39.95 (US)) 

HFL can be reached by phone at 1-800-874-5339 

Staying Supple: The Bountiful Pleasures of Stretching, by John Jerome 
Softcover, Bantam Books 1987, 151 pages 
ISBN: 0-553-34429-3 

Light on Yoga, by B. K. S. Iyengar 
NY Schocken Books 1979, 544 pages 
$18 (US), ISBN: 0-8052-1031-8 

Light on Pranayama, by B. K. S. Iyengar 
Crossroad Publishers 1985, 200 pages 
ISBN: 0-8245-0686-3 

Ultimate Fitness through Martial Arts, by Sang H. Kim 
[ chapter 8 (pages 147-192) is devoted to flexibility ] 

Softcover, Turtle Press (Publishers) 1993, 266 pages 
$16.95 (US), ISBN: 1-880336-02-2 

(This book and other items may be ordered from Turtle Press by calling 
1-800-77-TURTL in the United States) 

Stretching Scientifically : a Guide to Flexibility Training, by Tom Kurz 
3rd edition, completely revised 
Softcover, Stadion (Publisher) 1994, 147 pages 
$18.95 (US), ISBN: 0-940149-30-3 

(also by Tom Kurz: Science of Sports Training, 

$26.95-Softcover, $39. 95-Hardcover) 

(A Videotape entitled Tom Kurz ’ Secrets of Stretching 
is also available from Stadion for $49.95 (US)). 

Stadion can be reached by phone at 1-800-873-7117 

Beyond Splits (Volume I and Volume II), by Marco Lala 
Videotapes available from Marco Lala Karate Academy, 




Appendix A: References on Stretching 



43 



P.O. Box 979, Yonkers, NY USA 10704 

the tapes are $39.95 each (Vol.I and Vol.II are separate tapes) 

Facilitated Stretching: PNF Stretching Made Easy, by Robert E. McAtee 
Softcover, Human Kinetics Publishers 1993, 96 pages 
$16.00 (US), ISBN: 0-87322-420-5 

The Woman’s Stretching Book , by Susan L. Peterson 
Softcover, Leisure Press (Publisher) 1983, 112 pages 
$11.95 (US), ISBN: 0-88011-095-3 

The Health For Life Training Advisor, edited by Andrew T. Shields 
Softcover, Health for Life 1990, 320 pages 
$29.95 (US), ISBN: 0-944831-22-2 

Yoga the Iyengar Way, by Silva, Mira and Shyam Mehta 
Knopf Publishers 
$20 (US), ISBN: 0-679-72287-4. 

Stretch!, by Ann Smith 
Acropolis Books 1979 

The Book About Stretching, by Dr. Sven-A Solveborn, M.D. 

Japan Publications, 1985 

Stretching the Quick and Easy Way, by Sternad & Bozdech 
Softcover, $9.95 (US), ISBN: 0-8069-8434-1 

Complete Stretching, by Maxine Tobias and John Patrick Sullivan 
Softcover, Knopf (Publisher), $17.95 (US), ISBN: 0-679-73831-2 
(also by Maxine Tobias: Stretch and Relax ) 



A.l Recommendations 

My best recommendations are for Sport Stretch and Stretching Scientifically, followed by 
Health & Fitness Excellence, SynerStretch, or Stretch and Strengthen. Mobility Training 
for the Martial Arts also has quite a bit of valuable information and stretches. The Health 
for Life Training Advisor has a lot of information about stretching and muscle physiology, 
but it is not strictly about stretching and contains a ton of other information about all 
aspects of athletic training and performance (which I find to be invaluable). If you don’t 
want to get into too much technical detail and are looking for a quick but informative read, 
then I recommend Stretching Without Pain. If you really want to delve into all the technical 
aspects of stretching, including physiology, neurophysiology, and functional anatomy, then 
you must get Science of Stretching. If you want to know more about PNF stretching, then 
Facilitated Stretching is the book to get. If you are looking for yoga or active stretches 
you simply must take a look at ExTension (also your local library probably has quite a 




Appendix A: References on Stretching 



44 



few books and/or videotapes of yoga exercises). If you want to know more about muscle 
anatomy and physiology but don’t have a lot of technical interest or background in those 
two fields, The Muscle Book is highly recommended. 

Many of the other books don’t have as much detail about stretching and what happens 
to your muscles during a particular stretch, they just present (and illustrate) a variety of 
different exercises. Also, most of the stretches presented in these books are to be performed 
alone. Sport Stretch , SynerStretch (both the videotape and the book), and Mobility Train- 
ing for the Martial Arts present stretches that you can perform with the assistance of a 
partner. 

In general, Health For Life (also known as HFL) and Human Kinetics Publishers have a 
tremendously wide variety of technical, no-nonsense, exercise related books and videotapes. 
I would highly recommend contacting both organizations and asking for their free catalogs: 



Human Kinetics Publishers 
1607 North Market Street 
P.O. Box 5076 

Champaign, IL USA 61825-5076 
1-800-747-4457 (US) 
1-800-465-7301 (Canada) 

Health For Life 
8033 Sunset Blvd., Suite 483 
Los Angeles, CA USA 90046 
1-800-874-5339 



A. 2 Additional Comments 

Here is a little more information about some of the references (I haven’t actually read 
or seen all of them so I can’t comment on all of them): 

Sport Stretch 

This book has a very thorough section on all the details about how stretching 
works and what different stretching methods to use. It also contains over 300 
illustrated stretches as well as various stretching programs for 26 different sports 
and recreational activities. Each stretching program takes about 20 minutes and 
illustrates the 12 best stretches for that activity. In my humble opinion, this is 
the most complete book I was able to find on the subject of stretching (however, 
Science of Stretching, by the same author, is even more comprehensive). Some 
of you may prefer Kurz’ book to this one, however, since it is more devoted to 
increasing flexibility. 

Science of Stretching 

This book explains the scientific basis of stretching and discusses physiology, 
neurophysiology, mechanics, and psychology as they all relate to stretching. 
The book makes thorough use of illustrations, charts, diagrams, and figures, 




Appendix A: References on Stretching 



45 



and discusses each of its topics in great detail. It then presents guidelines for 
developing a flexibility program, including over 200 stretching exercises and 
warm-up drills. I suppose you could think of this book as a "graduate-level 
version" of Sport Stretch. 

Stretching Scientifically 

This is an excellent book that goes into excruciating detail on just about every- 
thing you want to know about stretching. It also contains a variety of stretches 
and stretching programs and is geared towards achieving maximal flexibility in 
the shortest possible amount of time. The only problem I found in this book 
is that some of the discussion gets very technical without giving the reader 
(in my opinion) sufficient background to fully understand what is being said. 
I believe that Sport Stretch does a better job of explaining things in a more 
comprehensible (easily understood) fashion. 

Facilitated Stretching 

Most of the reading material that is devoted to PNF stretching is highly tech- 
nical. This book attempts to break that trend. It tries to explain the history 
and principles of PNF without getting too technical, and shows how to perform 
PNF techniques that are appropriate for healthy people (complete with illustra- 
tions and easy-to-follow instructions). This book also contains a chapter which 
discusses the role of PNF techniques during injury rehabilitation. According to 
the publisher: 

The stretches in Facilitated Stretching are known as CRAC 
(contract-relax, antagonist-contract) stretches. CRAC stretches 
are the safest PNF stretches because there is no passive move- 
ment - the athlete performs all of the stretching. Facilitated 
Stretching contains 29 CRAC stretches, which address most of the 
major muscle groups: 18 are single-muscle stretches, and 11 use 
the spiral-diagonal patterns that are the heart of PNF stretching. 

Once readers have learned these stretching techniques, they will be 
able to design additional stretches for almost any muscle or muscle 
group. The book also features many self- stretching techniques that 
athletes can use to maintain their gains in range of motion. 

SynerStretch 

This is a "course" from HFL which claims that you can achieve "total body 
flexibility in just 8 minutes a day." It explains and presents two excellent stretch- 
ing routines: one for increasing flexibility and one for maintaining flexibility. It 
was the only work that I found which discusses the importance of performing 
certain stretches in a particular order. It is important to note that there is a 
significant difference between the printed and videotape versions of this course 
(aside from price): The printed version has a much more thorough discussion 
of theory, exercise selection, and exercise order; whereas the stretching routines 
presented in the videotape are better explained, and more "up to date". 

Stretch and Strengthen 

This is very good, but the author makes a few mistakes in some places (in 
particular, she seems to equate the stretch reflex, reciprocal inhibition, and PNF 




Appendix A: References on Stretching 



46 



with one another). The book is devoted to static stretching and to performing 
strengthening exercises of the muscles stretched. Each exercise explains what to 
do, what not to do, and why. There is also a separate section for diagnosing and 
correcting some problems that you may encounter during a particular stretch. 

Health & Fitness Excellence 

Simply put, this is one of the best books available on overall health and fitness. 
It has two chapters devoted to flexibility training that explain and provide 
several static and PNF stretches (although it refers to the PNF stretches as 
tighten-relax stretches). This is not a "fad" book! It uses sound, proven, sci- 
entific principles and research (explained in simple terms) to present programs 
for: reducing stress, strength and flexibility training, nutritional wellness, body 
fat control, postural vitality, rejuvenation and living environments design, and 
mind and life unity. I highly recommend this book. 

ExTension This is a fantastic book of yoga exercises. Each exercise is very well explained 
along with instructions on what to do if you don’t seem to feel the stretch, or 
think you are feeling it in the wrong place. It is chock-full of useful information 
and is very well written. 

Stretching Without Pain 

The author, W. Paul Blakey, is a practicing Osteopath, and former interna- 
tional ballet dancer. The book is very similar in format and content to this 
document, only it has well over a hundred illustrations, and also covers some 
additional material not found in this document (such as mental and emotional 
aspects to stretching and "stretching warzones"). It is one of the best quick, 
easy, and up-to-date stretching introductions that you will find. I can’t think 
of any other book that is under a hundred pages that covers as much as this 
book does (including isometric and PNF stretches). For more information 
about this book, contact Twin Eagles Educational and Healing Institute at 
‘http : //www. sunshine .net/www/0/sn0016’. You can also reach the author 
by e-mail at ‘TEEHI@sunshine.net’. 

The Muscle Book 

The author, Paul Blakey, is a practicing Osteopath, and former international 
ballet dancer. He has written and illustrated this book to help everyone who 
needs to know more about their own muscles, and how to look after them. The 
book clearly identifies the major surface muscles of the human body, and shows 
how they work. For each muscle there is straightforward information about 
first aid by massage, and an indication of particular dangers to watch for. All 
students of physique, and in particular dancers and gymnasts should find this 
book useful. For more information about this book, contact Twin Eagles Edu- 
cational and Healing Institute at ‘http : //www. sunshine .net /www/0/sn0016‘. 
You can also reach the author by e-mail at ‘TEEHI@sunshine.net’. 

Mobility Training for the Martial Arts 

This book is also quite good and quite comprehensive, but not as good (in my 
personal opinion) as Sport Stretch or Stretching Scientifically. 




Appendix A: References on Stretching 



47 



Staying Supple 

This book is a little old but is wonderfully written (although it could be orga- 
nized a bit better). It contains information at just about every level of detail 
about stretching, increasing and maintaining suppleness, and preventing the 
loss of suppleness. There is also a glossary of terms and concepts near the end 
of the book. 

Stretching A lot of people like this one. It presents a wide variety of stretches and stretching 
routines and does a good job of explaining each one. It does not go into too 
much detail about stretching other than just to present the various stretches 
and routines. 




Appendix A: References on Stretching 



48 




Appendix B: Working Toward the Splits 



49 



Appendix B Working Toward the Splits 



The following stretching routine is tailored specifically to the purpose of achieving the 
ability to perform both front splits and side splits. It consists of the following exercises: 

1. lower back stretches 

2. lying buttock stretch 

3. groin & inner-thigh stretch 

4. seated calf stretch 

5. seated hamstring stretch 

6. seated inner-thigh stretch 

7. psoas stretch 

8. quadricep stretch 

9. lying ‘V’ stretch 

Don't forget to warm-up your body before performing any of these exercises. See Sec- 
tion 4.1.1 [General Warm-Up], page 26. 

Warning: This stretching routine contains exercises that, depending on your physical 
condition, may be hazardous to your health. Consult with your doctor before attempting 
any of these exercises. It is also important that you use great caution when performing 
these exercises since improper performance could result in injury. 

Perform these stretches at your own risk! I cannot be held responsible for any injury 
which may result from you performing any of these exercises! See [Disclaimer], page 1. 

The details on how to perform each of the stretches are discussed in the following sections. 
Each section describes how to perform a passive stretch, and an isometric stretch, for 
a particular muscle group. On a given day, you should either perform only the passive 
stretches, or perform only the PNF stretches, in the order given (see Chapter 3 [Types of 
Stretching], page 17). If you perform the PNF stretches, don’t forget to rest 20 seconds after 
each PNF stretch, and don’t perform the same PNF stretch more than once per day (see 
Section 3.7 [PNF Stretching], page 20). The isometric stretches described do not require 
the assistance of a partner, but you may certainly use a partner if you so desire. The order 
in which these exercises are performed is important because the entire routine attempts to 
employ the principle of synergism by stretching a muscle fully before using that muscle as 
a "supporting muscle" in another stretch (see Section 4.8 [Exercise Order], page 33). 

As with all stretches, you should not stretch to the point of intense pain! A tolerable 
amount of discomfort should be more than sufficient. You do not want to pull (or tear) 
your muscles, or be very sore the next day. 

B.l lower back stretches 

These stretches work mostly the lower back, but also make some demands on your 
abdominals, and your external obliques (sides). 




Appendix B: Working Toward the Splits 



50 



Lying down with your back on the floor, straighten one leg, while bending the knee of 
the other leg, and try to bring the thigh of your bent leg as close as possible to your chest. 
Hold it there for 10-15 seconds. Then cross your bent leg over your straight leg and try to 
touch your knee to the floor (while trying to keep both shoulders on the ground). Repeat 
this same procedure with the other leg. Then, bend both knees and bring both thighs up 
against your chest (keeping your back on the floor). Hold that for 10-15 seconds. Then, 
put both feet on the ground but keep the knees bent. While trying to keep both shoulders 
on the ground, roll your legs over to one side and try to get your knees to touch the floor 
beside you. Hold for about 10-15 seconds and then do the same thing on the other side. 
Now repeat the same stretch, but this time begin with your feet off the floor so that your 
leg is bent at the knee at about a 90 degree angle. 

As for isometric stretches for the back, I don’t recommend them. 



B.2 lying buttock stretch 



This mainly stretches your buttocks (gluteal muscles) but also makes some demands on 
your groin and upper inner-thigh area. You must be very careful not to apply any stress to 
the knee joint when performing this stretch. Otherwise, serious injury (such as the tearing 
of cartilage) may occur. 

Lie on your back again with both knees bent and in the air and with your feet on the 
floor. Take your right foot in your left hand (with your hand wrapping under your foot so 
that the fingertips are on its outside edge) and hold your leg (with your knee bent) in the 
air about 1-3 feet above your left breast (relax, we haven’t started to stretch the buttocks 
just yet). The leg you are holding should be in much the same position as it is when you 
start your groin stretch in the next exercise, only now it is in the air because you are on 
your back (see Section B.3 [groin and inner-thigh stretch], page 51). Exhale and slowly pull 
your foot over to the side and up (toward your head) as if you were trying to touch your 
outstretched leg about 12 inches to the outside of your left shoulder. You should feel a good 
stretch in your buttocks about now. If you feel any stress at all on your knee then stop 
at once. You are probably pulling "up" too much and not enough to the side. You may 
wish to use your free hand to support your knee in some way. Hold this stretch for about 
20 seconds (and stop if you feel any stress in the knee joint). Now repeat this same stretch 
with the other leg (using the other hand). Remember that the leg you are not holding 
should have the sole of its foot on the floor with the knee bent and in the air. 

To make an isometric stretch out of this, when you are performing the passive stretch 
(above) and feel the stretch in your buttocks, continue trying to pull your foot to the outside 
of your shoulder while at the same time resisting with your leg so that it pushes agains your 
hand. No actual leg motion should take place, just the resistance. Stop immediately if you 
feel any undue stress to your knee. 




Appendix B: Working Toward the Splits 



51 



B.3 groin and inner-thigh stretch 

This mainly stretches your groin and upper inner-thigh area, but also makes some de- 
mands on your lower back. It is often called the butterfly stretch or frog stretch because of 
the shape that your legs make when you perform it. 

Sit down with your back straight up (don’t slouch, you may want to put your back 
against a wall) and bend your legs, putting the soles of your feet together. Try to get your 
heels as close to your groin as is comfortably possible. Now that you are in the proper 
position, you are ready to stretch. For the passive stretch, push your knees to the floor 
as far as you can (you may use your hands to assist but do not resist with the knees) and 
then hold them there. This can be hard on the knees so please be careful. Once you have 
attained this position, keep your knees where they are, and then exhale as you bend over, 
trying to get your chest as close to the floor as possible. Hold this stretch for about 20 
seconds. 

The isometric stretch is almost identical to the passive stretch, but before you bend 
over, place your hands on your ankles and your elbows in the crooks of your knees. As you 
bend over, use your elbows to "force" your knees closer to the floor while at the same time 
pushing "up" (away from the floor) with your thighs to resist against your arms. Once 
again, please be careful since this can place considerable strain on the knees. 



B.4 seated leg stretches 

These include three different stretches performed for the calves, hamstrings, and inner- 
thighs, but they are all performed in very similar positions and I do all three stretches (in 
the order given) for one leg before performing them for the other leg. You will need an 
apparatus for this stretch: a bench, or a firm bed or couch (or you could use two chairs 
with your butt on one chair and the heel of your foot on the other) that is at least 12 inches 
off the ground (but not so high that you can’t sit on it with out your knees bent and the 
sole of your foot solidly on the floor). The bench should be long enough to accommodate 
the full length of your leg. Sit on the bench and have your leg comfortably extended out in 
front of you (your heel should still be on the bench) and the other leg hanging out to the 
side with the leg bent and the foot flat on the ground. 



B.4.1 seated calf stretch 

With your leg extended directly in front of you, face your leg and bend it slightly. Place 
your hands around the ball of your foot and gently pull back so that you force yourself to 
flex your foot as much as possible. Hold this stretch for about 20 seconds (don’t forget to 
breathe). 

Now for the isometric stretch: in this same position, use your hands to try and force the 
ball (and toes) of your foot even further back toward you while at the same time using your 
calf muscles to try and straighten your foot and leg. You should be resisting enough with 
your hands so that no actual foot (or leg) motion takes place. 




Appendix B: Working Toward the Splits 



52 



B.4.2 seated hamstring stretch 

Now that our calf is stretched, we can get a more effective hamstring stretch (since 
inflexibility in the calf can be a limiting factor in this hamstring stretch). Still sitting on 
the bench in the same position, straighten your leg out while trying to hold onto your 
outstretched leg with both hands on either side as close as possible to your heel. Starting 
up with your back straight, slowly exhale and try to bring your chest to the knee of your 
outstretched leg. You should feel a "hefty" stretch in your hamstring and even a considerable 
stretch in your calf (even though you just stretched it). Hold this stretch for about 20 
seconds. 

Now for the isometric stretch: when you have gotten your chest as close as you can to 
your knee, try and put both hands under the bench by your heel (or both hands on opposite 
sides of your heel). Now grab on tight with your hands and try to physically push your 
heel (keeping your leg straight) downward "through" the bench, the bench will provide the 
necessary resistance, and should prevent any leg motion from occurring. 

B.4.3 seated inner-thigh stretch 

You should still be sitting on the bench with your outstretched leg in front of you. 
Now turn on the bench so that your leg is outstretched to your side, and you are facing 
the leg that is bent. You may perform this next stretch with either your toe pointing up 
toward the ceiling or with the inside edge of your foot flat on the bench with your toe 
pointing forward (but flexed), or you may try this stretch both ways since you will stretch 
some slightly different (but many of the same) muscles either way. I prefer to keep my toe 
pointed towards the ceiling because I personally feel that the other way applies to much 
stress to my knee, but you can do whatever feels comfortable to you. 

Note: If you are using two chairs instead of a bench, the first thing you need to do is 
to make sure that one of the chairs supports your outstretched leg somewhere between the 
knee and the hip. If the support is being provided below the knee and you try to perform 
this stretch, there is a good chance that you will injure ligaments and/or cartilage. 

Place your hands underneath the bench directly under you (or you may keep one hand 
under the portion of the bench that is below the knee of your outstretched leg) and pull 
yourself down and forward (keeping your back straight) as if you were trying to touch your 
chest to the floor. You should be able to feel the stretch in your inner-thigh. Hold this for 
about 20 seconds. 

For the isometric stretch, do the same thing you did with the hamstring stretch: keep 
both hands underneath you as before and try to force your foot downward "through" the 
bench. 



B.5 psoas stretch 

This stretch is sometimes called the runner's start because the position you are in resem- 
bles that of a sprinter at the starting block. It mainly stretches the psoas muscle located 
just above the top of the thigh. 




Appendix B: Working Toward the Splits 



53 



Crouch down on the floor with both hands and knees on the ground. Put one leg forward 
with your foot on the floor so that your front leg is bent at the knee at about a 90 degree 
angle. Now extend your rear leg in back of you so that it is almost completely straight 
(with just an ever so slight bend) and so that the weight of your rear leg is on the ball of 
your rear foot with the foot in a forced arch position. Now we are in the position to stretch 
(notice that your rear leg should be in pretty much the same position that it would assume 
if you were performing a front split). 

Keeping your back straight and in line with your rear thigh, exhale and slowly try to 
bring your chest down to the floor (you shouldn’t need to bend much further than the line 
your front knee is on). You should feel the stretch primarily in the upper thigh of your rear 
leg but you should also feel some stretch in your front hamstring as well. Hold this position 
for at least 15 seconds. If you wish to also stretch your rear quadricep from this position, 
you can shift your weight back so that your rear leg makes a right angle with your knee 
pointing toward the floor (but don’t let it touch the floor). Now, without bending your rear 
leg any further, try to force your rear knee straight down to the floor. 

Now repeat the same stretch(es) with your other leg in front. 

For an isometric stretch, you can do this same stretch in front of a wall and instead of 
putting your hands on the floor, put them in front of you against the wall and then push 
against the wall with the ball of your foot (without decreasing the "stretch" in your psoas). 



B.6 quadricep stretch 

For this stretch you will need one (or two) pillows or soft cushions to place between your 
knee and the floor. You must be very careful when performing this stretch because it can 
be hard on the knees. Please be advised to take it easy (and not overdo) while performing 
this exercise. If you have problems with your knees, you may be better off not performing 
this stretch at all. 

Put the pillow under your rear knee and let your knee rest on the floor. Lift up your 
rear foot and grab onto your foot with the opposite hand (grab the instep if possible, but if 
you can only reach the heel, that is okay). If you have trouble grabbing your foot, then you 
may need to sit (or shift) back onto your rear leg so that you can grab it, and then shift 
forward into the starting position (with your hand now holding your foot). Now, exhale and 
very gently, but steadily, pull your foot toward its buttock (butt-cheek) and lean toward 
your front foot (you may also wish to twist your waist and trunk towards the foot you are 
holding). You should feel a tremendous stretch in the quadricep (top right thigh) of the foot 
that you are pulling. If you begin to feel stress in your knee, then discontinue the exercise 
(but let your foot down slowly - not all at once). Hold this stretch for about 15 seconds. 
When you are finished, shift your weight slowly back onto your rear leg and let your foot 
down while you are still holding onto it. Do not just let go and let your foot snap back to 
the ground - this is bad for your knee. 

Now for the isometric stretch: Get into the same position as for the passive quadricep 
stretch, but as you lean forward and pull on your foot, resist with the leg you are holding 




Appendix B: Working Toward the Splits 



54 



by trying to push your instep back down to the ground and out of the grip of your hand 
(but no actual movement should take place). 

Now do the same stretch with your other leg in front. 

Stop the stretch immediately if you feel pain or discomfort in your knee. 

B.7 lying ‘V’ stretch 

This stretch is very good for working toward a side (chinese) split (see Section 4.13.3 
[The Side Split], page 39). This exercise should be performed after you have stretched each 
of these areas individually with prior stretches (like the ones mentioned above). 

Start by lying down with your back flat on the ground and your legs straight together 
in the air at a 90 degree angle. Try to have your legs turned out so that your knees are 
facing the side walls more than they are facing your head. Slowly bring your legs down to 
the sides, keeping your legs straight and turned out. When you reach the point where you 
cannot bring them down any further into this "lying" side split position, leave them there. 

Now for the stretch: With your feet both flexed or both pointed (your choice) use your 
arms to reach in and grab your legs. Each arm should grab the leg on the same side. Try to 
get a hold of the leg between the ankle and the knee (right at the beginning portion of the 
calf that is closest to the ankle is almost perfect). Now, exhale and use your arms to gently 
but steadily force your legs down further and wider (keeping the legs straight) getting closer 
to the lying side-split position (where, ideally, your kneecaps would be "kissing" the floor). 
Hold this position and keep applying steady pressure with your arms for about 20 seconds. 

For the isometric stretch, you do the same thing as the passive stretch except that, as 
you use your arms to force your legs wider, use your inner and outer thigh muscles to try 
and force your legs back up together and straight (like a scissors closing), but apply enough 
resistance with your arms so that no motion takes place (this can be tough since your legs 
are usually stronger than your arms). You may find that you get a much better stretch if 
you use a partner (rather than your own arms) to apply the necessary resistance. 




Appendix C: Normal Ranges of Joint Motion 



55 



Appendix C Normal Ranges of Joint Motion 

According to Kurz, the following tables indicates the normal ranges of joint motion for 
various parts of the body: 



C.l Neck 

Flexion: 70-90 degrees 

Touch sternum with chin. 

Extension: 55 degrees 

Try to point up with chin. 

Lateral bending: 35 degrees 

Bring ear close to shoulder. 

Rotation: 70 degrees left & right 

Turn head to the left, then right. 



C.2 Lumbar Spine 

Flexion: 75 degrees 

Bend forward at the waist. 

Extension: 30 degrees 

Bend backward. 

Lateral bending: 35 degrees 
Bend to the side. 



C.3 Shoulder 

Abduction: 180 degrees 

Bring arm up sideways. 

Adduction: 45 degrees 

Bring arm toward the midline of the body. 

Horizontal extension: 45 degrees 

Swing arm horizontally backward. 

Horizontal flexion: 130 degrees 

Swing arm horizontally forward. 

Vertical extension: 60 degrees 

Raise arm straight backward. 

Vertical flexion: 180 degrees 

Raise arm straight forward. 




Appendix C: Normal Ranges of Joint Motion 



C.4 Elbow 

Flexion: 150 degrees 

Bring lower arm to the biceps 

Extension: 180 degrees 

Straighten out lower arm. 

Supination: 90 degrees 

Turn lower arm so palm of hand faces up. 

Pronation: 90 degrees 

Turn lower arm so palm faces down. 

C.5 Wrist 

Flexion: 80-90 degrees 

Bend wrist so palm nears lower arm. 

Extension: 70 degrees 

Bend wrist in opposite direction. 

Radial deviation: 20 degrees 

Bend wrist so thumb nears radius. 

Ulnar deviation: 30-50 degrees 

Bend wrist so pinky finger nears ulna. 



C.6 Hip 

Flexion: 110-130 degrees 

Flex knee and bring thigh close to abdomen. 

Extension: 30 degrees 

Move thigh backward without moving the pelvis. 

Abduction: 45-50 degrees 

Swing thigh away from midline. 

Adduction: 20-30 degrees 

Bring thigh toward and across midline. 

Internal rotation: 40 degrees 

Flex knee and swing lower leg away from midline. 

External rotation: 45 degrees 

Flex knee and swing lower leg toward midline. 




Appendix C: Normal Ranges of Joint Motion 



57 



C.7 Knee 

Flexion: 130 degrees 

Touch calf to hamstring. 

Extension: 15 degrees 

Straighten out knee as much as possible. 

Internal rotation: 10 degrees 

Twist lower leg toward midline. 



C.8 Ankle 

Flexion: 45 degrees 

Bend ankle so toes point up. 

Extension: 20 degrees 

Bend ankle so toes point down. 

Pronation: 30 degrees 

Turn foot so the sole faces in. 

Supination: 20 degrees 

Turn foot so the sole faces out. 




Appendix C: Normal Ranges of Joint Motion 



58 




Index 



59 



Index 



A 

actin 

active flexibility 

active stretching 

aerobic activity 

agonists 

Alter, Judy 

Alter, Michael J 

Anderson, Bob 

ankle, range of motion of 

antagonists 

autogenic inhibition 

B 

ballistic PNF stretching . . 

ballistic stretching 

Beaulieu, John E 

benefits of stretching 

Blakey, W. Paul 

books on stretching 

butterfly stretch 



... 3 
. . 11 
. . 18 
. . 26 
... 5 
. . 41 
2, 41 
. . 41 
. . 57 
... 5 
... 9 



21 

17 

41 

25 

41 

41 

51 



c 

Chinese split 38 

circadian rhythms 34 

clasped-knife reflex 9 

collagen 5 

collagenous connective tissue 5 

common stretching mistakes 25 

concentric contraction 6 

connective tissue 5 

contract-relax, PNF stretching technique 21 

contract-relax-antagonist-contract, PNF stretching 
technique 21 



contract-relax-bounce, PNF stretching technique 

21 

contract-relax-contrac.t, PNF stretching technique 

21 

contract-relax-swing, PNF stretching technique 



21 

contractile proteins 3 

cooling down 28 

Cooper, Robert K 41 

counting during stretching 32 

CRAC, PNF stretching technique 21 

Croce, Pat 41 



D 

different types of flexibility 11 

different types of stretching 17 

duration of a stretch 31 

Dworkis, Sam 41 

dynamic flexibility 11 

dynamic PNF stretching 21 

dynamic stretching 17 

dynamic warm-up stretching 28 

E 

early-morning stretching 34 

eccentric contraction 6 

elastic connective tissue 5 

elastin 5 

elbow, range of motion of 56 

endomysium 5 

epimysium 5 

extrafusal muscle fibers 7 

F 

fascia 5 

fascial sheaths of muscle 5 

fascicles 3 

fasciculi 3 

fast-twitch fibers 4 

fixators 5 

flexibility 11 

flexibility, factors affecting 12 

flexibility, limiting factors 12 

Frenette, Jean 42 

frog stretch 51 

front split 38 



G 

general warm-up 

golgi tendon organ 

groin and inner-thigh stretch 
Gummerson, Tony 



H 

Health for Life 2, 42 

HFL 2, 42 

hip, range of motion of 56 

hold-relax, PNF stretching technique 21 

hold-relax-bounce, PNF stretching technique ... 21 



.. 26 
... 7 
.. 51 
2, 42 




Index 



60 



liold-relax-contract, PNF stretching technique . . 21 



hold-relax-swing, PNF stretching technique .... 21 

I 

innervate 9 

interdependency of muscle groups 33 

intrafusal muscle fibers 7 

inverse myotatic. reflex 9 

isolation offered by a stretch 29 

isometric agonist contraction/relaxation 21 

isometric antagonist contraction 21 

isometric contraction 6 

isometric stretching 19 

isotonic contraction 6 

Iyengar, B. K. S 42 

J 

Jerome, John 42 

joint rotations 26 

joints 3 

K 

Kim, Sang H 42 

kinetic flexibility 11 

knee, range of motion of 57 

Kurz, Tom 2, 42 

L 

Lala, Marco 42 

lengthening reaction 9 

leverage offered by a stretch 30 

ligaments 3 

limiting factors of flexibility 12 

lower back stretches 49 

lumbar spine, range of motion of 55 

lying buttock stretch 50 

lying ‘V’ stretch 54 



M 

McAtee, Robert E 43 

meclianoreceptors 7 

Mehta, Shyam 43 

metabolic accumulation 36 

Mira 43 

mitochondria 4 

mobility 12 

mobility, factors affecting 12 

mucopolysaccharide 5 

muscle fibers 3 

muscle spasms 36 



muscle spindle 

musculoskeletal system 

myofilaments 

myofybrils 

myosin 

myotatic reflex 

N 

neck, range of motion of 

neuromuscular junction 

neutralizers 

nuclear bag fibers 

nuclear chain fibers 

P 

pacinian corpuscles 

passive flexibility 

passive stretching 

perimysium 

Peterson, Susan L 

plyometrics 

PNF stretching 

post-isometric relaxation techniques 

prime movers 

proprioception 

proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation 

proprioceptors 

psoas stretch 

Q 

quadricep stretch 

R 

ranges of joint motion 

reciprocal inhibition 

reciprocal innervation 

references on stretching 

relaxed stretching 

relaxed warm-up stretching 

repetitions of a stretch 

respiratory pump 

risk of injury from a stretch 

runner’s start 

s 

sarcomeres 

seated calf stretch 

seated hamstring stretch 

seated inner-t.higli stretch 

seated leg stretches 



7 
3 
3 
3 
3 

8 



55 
3 
. 5 
. 8 
8 



7 
11 
18 
. 5 
43 
. 8 
20 
20 
5 
. 7 
20 
7 
52 



53 



55 
9 
. 9 
41 
18 
27 
32 
32 
30 
52 



. 3 

51 

52 
52 
51 




Index 



Shields, Andrew T 43 

shoulder, range of motion of 55 

side split 38 

Silva 43 

slow-twitch fibers 4 

Smith, Ann 43 

Solveborn, Sven-A 43 

split-stretching machines 39 

sport-specific activity 28 

stabilizers 5 

static stretching 18 

static warm-up stretching 27 

static-active flexibility 11 

static-active stretching 18 

static-passive flexibility 11 

static-passive stretching 18 

Sternad & Bozdech 43 

stretch receptors 7 

stretch reflex 8 

stretch reflex, dynamic component 8 

stretch reflex, static component 8 

Sullivan, John Patrick 43 



synergism 

synergists 

T 

tendons 

Tobias, Maxine 

torn tissue 

Type 1 muscle fibers 
Type 2A muscle fibers 
Type 2B muscle fibers 
types of flexibility 
types of stretching 

V 

videotapes on stretching 

w 

warm-up stretching 

warming down 

warming up 

wrist, range of motion of 




Index 



62 




Table of Contents 



Introduction 1 

Disclaimer 1 

Acknowledgements 2 

About the Author 2 

1 Physiology of Stretching 3 

1.1 The Musculoskeletal System 3 

1.2 Muscle Composition 3 

1.2.1 How Muscles Contract 3 

1.2.2 Fast and Slow Muscle Fibers 4 

1.3 Connective Tissue 5 

1.4 Cooperating Muscle Groups 5 

1.5 Types of Muscle Contractions 6 

1.6 What Happens When You Stretch 7 

1.6.1 Proprioceptors 7 

1.6.2 The Stretch Reflex 8 

1.6.2. 1 Components of the Stretch Reflex 8 

1.6.3 The Lengthening Reaction 9 

1.6.4 Reciprocal Inhibition 9 

2 Flexibility 11 

2.1 Types of Flexibility 11 

2.2 Factors Limiting Flexibility 12 

2.2.1 How Connective Tissue Affects Flexibility 13 

2.2.2 How Aging Affects Flexibility 13 

2.3 Strength and Flexibility 14 

2.3.1 Why Bodybuilders Should Stretch 14 

2.3.2 Why Contortionists Should Strengthen 15 

2.4 Overflexibility 15 

3 Types of Stretching 17 

3.1 Ballistic Stretching 17 

3.2 Dynamic Stretching 17 

3.3 Active Stretching 18 

3.4 Passive Stretching 18 

3.5 Static Stretching 18 

3.6 Isometric Stretching 19 

3.6.1 How Isometric Stretching Works 20 

3.7 PNF Stretching 20 

3.7.1 How PNF Stretching Works 22 




4 How to Stretch 25 

4.1 Warming Up 25 

4.1.1 General Warm-Up 26 

4. 1.1.1 Joint Rotations 26 

4. 1.1.2 Aerobic Activity 26 

4.1.2 Warm-Up Stretching 27 

4. 1.2.1 Static Warm-Up Stretching 27 

4. 1.2.2 Dynamic Warm-Up Stretching 28 

4.1.3 Sport- Specific Activity 28 

4.2 Cooling Down 28 

4.3 Massage 29 

4.4 Elements of a Good Stretch 29 

4.4.1 Isolation 29 

4.4.2 Leverage 30 

4.4.3 Risk 30 

4.5 Some Risky Stretches 30 

4.6 Duration, Counting, and Repetition 31 

4.7 Breathing During Stretching 32 

4.8 Exercise Order 33 

4.9 When to Stretch 33 

4.9.1 Early- Morning Stretching 34 

4.10 Stretching With a Partner 34 

4.11 Stretching to Increase Flexibility 34 

4.12 Pain and Discomfort 35 

4.12.1 Common Causes of Muscular Soreness 36 

4.12.2 Stretching with Pain 37 

4.12.3 Overstretching 37 

4.13 Performing Splits 38 

4.13.1 Common Problems When Performing Splits .... 38 

4.13.2 The Front Split 39 

4.13.3 The Side Split 39 

4.13.4 Split-Stretching Machines 39 

Appendix A References on Stretching 41 

A.l Recommendations 43 

A. 2 Additional Comments 44 

Appendix B Working Toward the Splits 49 

B. l lower back stretches 49 

B.2 lying buttock stretch 50 

B.3 groin and inner-thigh stretch 51 

B.4 seated leg stretches 51 

B.4.1 seated calf stretch 51 

B.4. 2 seated hamstring stretch 52 

B.4. 3 seated inner-thigh stretch 52 

B.5 psoas stretch 52 

B.6 quadricep stretch 53 

B.7 lying ‘V ! stretch 54 




Ill 



Appendix C Normal Ranges of Joint Motion 



55 

C.l Neck 55 

C.2 Lumbar Spine 55 

C.3 Shoulder 55 

C.4 Elbow 56 

C.5 Wrist 56 

C.6 Hip 56 

C.7 Knee 57 

C.8 Ankle 57 

Index 59 




iv